Sayville Ambulance

[Unregisteredgfhdk]

hey sayville community, time to go PAID!!!

your nghbors are getting tired!!!

its EVERY DAY now, and not just us anymore. now the calls are getting bounced all the way to fd, ronko fd, holtsville!!!

the regular 24's are holbrook, lakeland, , patchogue, north patch, exchange...... PAID PAID PAID PAID PAID

[Unregisteredtex]

Paid is not always what is needed, but it would help. Remember, Sayville does more EMS calls than probably most of those departments combined. But they do need to figure out ways to reduce 24's. It hasn't always been like this.

[WakeupSayville]

Why don’t you guys spend some money and pay a full crew 24/7. Don’t worry about getting your volly’s upset over a paid crew they are not coming out anyway.

[Unregistered549789]

Paid is not always what is needed, but it would help. Remember, Sayville does more EMS calls than probably most of those departments combined. But they do need to figure out ways to reduce 24's. It hasn't always been like this.

Yes, they're busy....but they also cover 5 towns, not 1.

Time to go paid, lets stop f ucking around.

[Howmanytoday]

So how many did we give away today so far??????????

[medic00]

An 8% no response rate for the year is pretty bad for Sayville Amb.

[Unregistered124565]

So how many did we give away today so far??????????

2 today, 2 or 3 yesterday.

[Unregistered0000000000]

Good job Sayville Amb, keep up the good work.

[Unregistered54692]

Even when they get out during the day it's due to them abusing the paid North Shore Medic, or begging the FD's in the area for a driver!

[Unregistered52]

I see nothing has changed on this site. People with too much time on thr hands airing dirty laundry. Back seat drivers who will never amount to much. I recommend you put an application in at Community Ambulance. If it is accepted maybe you could impress them with your skills. I doubt it.

Get off your know it all arse and ride an ambulance. Community understands it is time to change and will. In the past they have always prided our themselves for helping thr brother/sister departments when in need without kicking them when they were down. Remember paid is not always the answer and what goes around comes around.

To all those who have helped. A sincere thanks. And to the rest of you know it alls I hope someday we can dance.....

[Unregistered3130]

I see nothing has changed on this site. People with too much time on thr hands airing dirty laundry. Back seat drivers who will never amount to much. I recommend you put an application in at Community Ambulance. If it is accepted maybe you could impress them with your skills. I doubt it.

Get off your know it all arse and ride an ambulance. Community understands it is time to change and will. In the past they have always prided our themselves for helping thr brother/sister departments when in need without kicking them when they were down. Remember paid is not always the answer and what goes around comes around.

To all those who have helped. A sincere thanks. And to the rest of you know it alls I hope someday we can dance.....

Stop typing & start answering calls!!!

[Unregistered3031]

Stop looking at whos typing and get off your fat a@# and start answering calls yourself.

[Unregisteredscvol]

Stop looking at whos typing and get off your fat a@# and start answering calls yourself.

I do, and that's why MY dept/agency gets out & answers alot of your calls too!!! See, we don't abuse the North Shore Medics or the local FD's for drivers... And we don't rely on our nghbors every week day!

[Unregistered3031]

Hey stupid, The North Shore Medics are there because they have to be, they are the ones that lost a law suit that put them there in the first place, remember ? Second, please tesll me that you are from a department that does nearly the amount of call that Sayville does with the budget that they have, then we'll talk. didn't think so.

[Unregistered3031]

Ok, a few mistakes before I hit submit, but u get the message.

[fire-emtcc]

First; Sayville has gone paid with a paid medic week days.Also they have a paid houseman who is not a EMT but is used as a driver.Yes Sayville use's the NS medics alot,but you do what you have to do get the rig out.The problem with the department is that after much in-fighting last year the membership is divided .One has to be on our side or not.Now after a carefully arranged election the glorious one's are in charge.Sadly they thought that the members would answer up for them.Most from the "other side" just ride thr shift and are done for the week.How many members have left? how many times can you say screw them they're useless anyway?Sayville has some good members who have been riding for years.Many are taking leaves or quiting,but with the leadership in place who needs them.Sayville has Captains who are EMS gods and most of you who are bitching about the 24 rate are not worthy of even driving an ambulance for them.But if you kiss ass enough they may make one of a dozen Lt.'s

[DisgracedEMT]

Alright this is why EMS is screwed up. All day long people complain about everyone else. No one looks in the mirror. You have Central and Brentwood ambulance on you tube playing pirates like a bunch of retarded little boys, than they break all the HIPPA rules by taping a patient while they are all acting like idiots. You have other agencies that respond with 6 vehicles to a one car MVA. You have EMT's that have no idea about medicine but they think they are better than doctors. You have members responding to calls with the most ridiculous buffy shirts anyone could possibly wear. I ride EMS and work in a hospital...I fully understand why doctors and nurses have no respect for EMS. It's EMS's fault. So my message to all of you complete morons is stop complaining about other people and pick up a book and read so maybe just maybe one day you will be able to provide real patient care and EMS will finally get some respect

[Unregistered4444]

I do, and that's why MY dept/agency gets out & answers alot of your calls too!!! See, we don't abuse the North Shore Medics or the local FD's for drivers... And we don't rely on our nghbors every week day!

Let's face it, every dept. has had thr ups and downs! I know damn well that Sayville helped out thr nghboring dept's. many times. Did they bitch and moan? I'm sure they did. But as you can see here, everyone bitches and moans when they have to answer other dept's calls. BUT, again, there is not one dept. here who can honestly say they have never been in Sayville's shoes at one point or another......even if only a short time!

Instead of all the name calling and childish bullshit, let's try to figure a way to help all our dept's. by getting volley recruitment up. It will benefit us all in the end. We talk about "Brothers and Sisters", and this how we act towards one another?! We are a bunch of phonies then!! We put up the good face in front of our community and then bash each other on boards like these!

Keep a cool head and go back and read some of these posts. We look like unprofessional assholes! I think we are ALL better than that!! We all joined our respective EMS dept's. for the same reason....to help others and do something for our communities. Let's try to remember that when we are about to trash talk!

[Unregistered52]

Thanks 4444. You hit the nail on the head.

[Unregisteredhgjdl]

First; Sayville has gone paid with a paid medic week days.Also they have a paid houseman who is not a EMT but is used as a driver.Yes Sayville use's the NS medics alot,but you do what you have to do get the rig out.The problem with the department is that after much in-fighting last year the membership is divided .One has to be on our side or not.Now after a carefully arranged election the glorious one's are in charge.Sadly they thought that the members would answer up for them.Most from the "other side" just ride thr shift and are done for the week.How many members have left? how many times can you say screw them they're useless anyway?Sayville has some good members who have been riding for years.Many are taking leaves or quiting,but with the leadership in place who needs them.Sayville has Captains who are EMS gods and most of you who are bitching about the 24 rate are not worthy of even driving an ambulance for them.But if you kiss ass enough they may make one of a dozen Lt.'s

that's good, the town suffers because the babies in sayville ambulance can't act like adults!

[UnregisteredStopthecrap!]

that's good, the town suffers because the babies in sayville ambulance can't act like adults!

Act like adults? Last I checked, it wasn't the members at Sayville playing pirates on thr stretchers and taking down the American flag to put up a pirates flag!

Also, look at your own dept. before talking trash about another dept. If your going to try and tell me everyone in your dept. acts like adults 100% of the time and you have no in-fighting between members and everyone loves everyone and members don't piss and moan about stupid stuff, I am going to tell you that you are 100% full of shit!

[Unregisterededede]

yeah, my agency gets out. we've havent 24rd a call this year yet due to lack of response! we've only 24rd when we ran out of rigs.

and i say it again, we DONT rely on north shore or any other agency to complete out crews.

suck it up and go paid.

[Unregisteredbuff]

Sayville what is going on? I hear that two captains, the als chairman, the narcotics officer and the person in charege of the paid people all resigned thr positions. There is a fight between the officers, chiefs and board. The board wants to get rid of all the vollies and contract out. Fifety years of service and dedication wasted. I hope thay take vollie off thr logo if they do that.

[UnregisteredBUFF]

Did My Comment Get Erased? Here It Is Again.

Sayville What Is Going On? I Heard Two Captains. The Als Officer, The Narcotics Officer And The Paid Medic Supervisor All Quit. Did The Let Another Convict In? I Here The Board Wnats To Get Rid Of The Vollies. No Respect For 50 Years Of Dedicated Service. I Hope They Take Vollie Off Thr Ambulances If They Do So.

[Unregisteredtaxpayer]

What a waste of money and crap. Thr 32 rides around with tinted windows with his laser light show and doesn't ride the ambulance. And 31 who is he? He just commutes to work with his car.

[Unregisteredbuff]

I think they need a fish pond like Terrace. There new building is going to look nice with EAS in it.

[UnregisteredMole]

What a waste of money and crap. Thr 32 rides around with tinted windows with his laser light show and doesn't ride the ambulance. And 31 who is he? He just commutes to work with his car.
I hear that thr "32" is known as "2 & 5" becuase he goes on a "2" to the scene in his personal buff mobile and then takes a "5". He doesn't go to the hospital!

Also, I hear that he doesn't take a "2" till he hears the ambulance take a "2"......now knowing that a full crew has been established and he doesn't have to go to the hospital. What a sad little man!

[Unregisteredbuff]

Yeah like that is there future.2-5 32 and his magic lightbar light show. Don't forget his 88 truck. I'm surprised he can see over the steering wheel.
He had the windows tinted so no one would think there was a child driving the car. But I think board of directors are sitting in the back telling where to go. Did I say BOD? what BOD? They don't ride the ambulance because it's beneath thr south of montaulk attitudes. They have style and culture now. grey poupon anyone?

If you are listening. Where are the paid emt's you were going to hire? Stop having hotdogs with the politicians and do your job. The public and members are losing trust in you!

[Unregisteredbuff]

Sayville will be number one at one thing. This list. Until there is change there will be postings. Go sayville.

[Unregisteredtaxpayer]

I heard Sayville just bought a LABEL MACHINE for $3500.00. For a company that cannot get on the road they could have hired a medic and emt crew for 100hours. Who is running that place?

[HearingNastyS**t]

What is going on over there Sayville? Who is running the show? Officers quitting?...... committee heads resigning? BOD members bng called at the drop of a hat by the baby chief? Ex officers running around posting signs? It sounds like a frigging circus over there! Well, why not? I hear one of thr members is an ex-clown! lol!!

I know Sayville used to be a top notch organization! But it seems like all hell has broken loose! Have the chiefs lost control? Is this all baby chiefs fault? Too busy shaking hands and taking photo-ops I hear!

It's all out there.....one of thr members is spilling her guts to a rival company. I won't say which one, but thr initials are SCA! Oh yea, she's singing like a canary!!

Rule number one.....don't air your problems out for all to see!

Shape up Sayville! Get your shit together!

[UnregisteredTHEEND]

Falling apart? It is done. I just hope the State doesn't look into what is going on. Ambulances are not getting on the road but everyone has cell phones, tinted windows, fancy light bars, big dinners at conventions and the label machine need I say more.
The chiefs don't run the company the board of directors does and they don't ride. The board is there for one hour a month. That's it. Since they are never there the company is run on hearsay and gossip. Totally unprofessional.
Beware Sayville members! They will use you until they don't need you then slander you with gossip and throw you out. It has happened before only quietly.

[fire-emtcc]

And 31 who is he? He just commutes to work with his car.

At l he is sober!

Last year it was a pedophile member this year a chief who can't keep his buffmobile on the road

[MichaelA]

This forum should only let people who register make posts or you will get one guy making 10 posts using different names to trash talk others. If you were a real man you would state your name. Thanks

[Unregistered3]

so its bad enough that the department can't get vehicles out, now we hear that 32 put his chief's car in a ditch while drunk driving and the other department chief's and board are covering it up because he's an MTA officer. hers comes Newsday.

[Unregistered5150]

800.16 SUSPENSION OR REVOCATION OF CERTIFICATION

Any certification issued pursuant to this Part may be suspended for a fixed period, revoked or annulled, or the certificate holder may be censured, reprimanded, or fined in accordance with section 12 of the Public Health Law, after a hearing conducted pursuant to section 12-a of the Public Health Law, the department determines that the certificate holder:

1. has failed to comply with the requirements of section 800.15 of this Part;
2. has been found guilty of ther fraud, dect, incompetence, patient abuse, theft, or dishonesty in the performance of the certificant's duties and practice;
3. has been found guilty of fraud or dect in the procuring of certification;
4. has been convicted of any crime or crimes related to murder, manslaughter, assault, sexual abuse, theft, robbery, drug abuse or sale of drugs unless the department finds that such conviction or charges do not demonstrate a present risk or danger to patients;
5. has provided patient care or driven an ambulance or other emergency medical services response vehicle while under the influence of alcohol or any other drug affecting physical coordination or intellectual functions;
6. has knowingly aided or abetted another in practice as an emergency medical technician who is not certified as such; or
7. has held him or herself out as bng certified at a higher level than actually certified, or has used skills restricted to individuals holding a higher level of certification.

[Don't Hate the Playa!]

Hey Sayville, from what I am reading here, you guys should just start waving the white flag! Looks like your company is a defeated bunch!

If Newsday ever found out about this and started delving into this department and came to find out that even half the shit written was true, this department would be in a shit storm!!

The three chiefs should re-think what they are doing down there and right this ship before it sinks!

[Unregistered12345]

Get the facts correct before you bash people..Only two of the captains resigned and they held the positions of ALS chairman, narcotics officer and person in charge of paid people.. That was there choice to resign, apparently they could not run things thr way. When you give two people all that so called power, there heads swell way to fast.

As far a 32 goes there is no proof of any wrong doing, this is only hear say by disgruntled members. You figure out who is disgruntled.

[downforthecount123]

Get the facts correct before you bash people..Only two of the captains resigned and they held the positions of ALS chairman, narcotics officer and person in charge of paid people.. That was there choice to resign, apparently they could not run things thr way. When you give two people all that so called power, there heads swell way to fast.

As far a 32 goes there is no proof of any wrong doing, this is only hear say by disgruntled members. You figure out who is disgruntled.

......this post was written by the little chief! Running his car into a ditch is NOT hearsay, it's a fact! And the two captains who resigned were two of the most active, giving of thr time members in the company!

I love how this buffoon writes "Only"! Yea, only now there is no one to keep track of the ALS, no one to take care of the company training & the CME's! Yea, "ONLY" some of the most important aspects of the company! So don't play it off like these two resigning was no big deal! Sure, the powers that be want to make it sound like that, but the loss of these two captains and the repercussions that follow will become very clear, very fast!

So jerk-off, stop spewing nonsense and get your head out of your ass!!

[Unregistered911emerg]

Fifty plus years of service! This company has been around for over fifty years!!!!!!!!!!!........and it's only taking thr 32 a few months to completely destroy it!

Nice going chief! Only thing left will be nice (and expensive) light bars and tinted windows! I'm sure EAS will find some use for them!!

Why don't you go drive your car into a ditch!.....Oh, wait a minute.....been there, done that!

[Unregistered12345]

Sayville has been around for fifty plus years, it will still be here as long as suffolk co has volunteers. FYI there are other people to replace the two who resigned and life will go on. Everyone is replaceable.

The company has been down this road before and still is around. Everyone will move on and say "Captain who and who resigned, Oh, yea I kind of remember them".
Get over yourselves this happens all over long Island between FD and Ambulance Co's and they are all still here.

[Unregistered082307]

Sayville has been around for fifty plus years, it will still be here as long as suffolk co has volunteers. FYI there are other people to replace the two who resigned and life will go on. Everyone is replaceable.

The company has been down this road before and still is around. Everyone will move on and say "Captain who and who resigned, Oh, yea I kind of remember them".
Get over yourselves this happens all over long Island between FD and Ambulance Co's and they are all still here.

How lucky your agency is to have so many volunteers.Most of Suffolk is hurting.From reading this post I assume it's not worth your agency's time to accept new members who are not ALS.Yes, people come and go But should we really be of the mind set that everyone is desposable?They people will be saying "Captain who and who resigned, Oh, yea I kind of remember them" will most likely be paid personel.But 2-5 dosn't care he wants to be a big shot driving a chiefs car.As far as the members who resigned, yea, they want the unibrow out because it makes thier run for chiefs easier.They got you in to office they will get you out.

[UnregisteredFIEMS]

if you can't beat him, join him!

the only people you are hurting are the citizens that you serve. stop acting like little school kids, spreading rumors & bickering. 32 will do him time, and when he's out - YOU CAN BE CHIEF and solve all of the problems. then we can rename the company FANTASY ISLAND COMMUNITY AMBULANCE.

best of luck...

[Unregistered32]

I would like very much to see someone ask if infact 32 was drinking at the time of his accident, where a county employee went to pull a city employee out of a ditch who was driving a vehicle with official plates. I would like to see if 32 would be willing to take a lie detector test & commit perjury at the risk of retaining his 32 status, rather than to step down. as for 30 & 31, well you should both be ashamed of yourselves for covering up this act. did nther of you learn nothing from the previous administration who all were disgraced & who left the company in the shape it was left. people voted for you as 30 because of not only wanting change, but because of your previous leadership & reputation, for which you have now lost.

[UnregisteredBoohoo]

Boo Hoo!

[Unregistered12345]

Unregistered32 your point is well taken.... It kind of sums it all up

[bumpy]

bump

[Unregistered32]

Well, lets see. The board took no action, the chief took no action. The only person who was a stand up guy with all that was going resigned as captain, not to mention another ALS provider. It seems to me, that in the face of the captain who saved 32's ass that night from a ditch when he smacked up the chiefs car while drunk, made the right choice to step down from the department rather than to face scandal for the entire department. Not only did the coward not step down as chief, but he cried like a little bitch at the officers meeting and when people brought up the issue, he decided to try and throw around the people can't talk to me like that, I'm a Police officer. Right, a drunk one maybe, but you know damn well that you would fail your balls of if you were to take a polygraph test for that night and the events that followed. the building has walls Chief, and they hae some very big ears listening..........

[Unregistered - LOSERS!!]

You people need to get a life and get laid!!

[Unregisteredweseeyou]

Well, lets see. The board took no action, the chief took no action. The only person who was a stand up guy with all that was going resigned as captain, not to mention another ALS provider. It seems to me, that in the face of the captain who saved 32's ass that night from a ditch when he smacked up the chiefs car while drunk, made the right choice to step down from the department rather than to face scandal for the entire department. Not only did the coward not step down as chief, but he cried like a little bitch at the officers meeting and when people brought up the issue, he decided to try and throw around the people can't talk to me like that, I'm a Police officer. Right, a drunk one maybe, but you know damn well that you would fail your balls of if you were to take a polygraph test for that night and the events that followed. the building has walls Chief, and they hae some very big ears listening..........

Thanks Jim.

[Unregistered51502]

Thanks Jim.

Jim? Jim who?

[Unregisteredwondering]

I have to ask,since Sayville went paid, what is the logic behind the staffing?
Friday I heard a paramedic (paid) respond to a delta call.A paid EMT (after a few 3's) took a bus to the scene.The medic then ask for the NS medic to continue in because it's an ALS call and the EMT can't drive,So the medic would drive the NS medic.Today I hear the "first responder paramedic" arrive on scene 5 minutes after the (I believe) vollie crew got on scene.Maybe if your medic stayed in your district response times would be better.At l you went paid it's fewer calls of yours that I have to answer up on.It may take paid crews but someday Sayville will come back to what they once were.

[waaawaaaweewaaa]

sayville community signal 3. sayville community signal 3. just send it to CI/Happauge, roll it!

[Unregistered seek]

cant send it to ,CI they cant get out of there own way. the call goes round , and round and round oohhh look disregard patients a 50,

[Unregisteredtiredofthebs]

Another election and more of the same."secret" write in for 31, you couldn't get him out last year so try again.Shawn was never around when he was chief.And really, Hector as BOD he just doesn't have the "south of montauk" attitude.Some people should put as much effort in to getting 32 out as they did getting him in. And a few captains who ride or know what to do would be nice.Leadership sucks but with the few running things from the background things will not change.Next year hopefully there will be change for the better but the damage is done.

[Unregistered3456788]

Act like adults? Last I checked, it wasn't the members at Sayville playing pirates on thr stretchers and taking down the American flag to put up a pirates flag!

First off, those guys did not take down an American flag to put up a pirate flag, they raised the pirate flag UNDER the american flag...

Second, when boredom sets in, even the most "mature" person can act a little childish. As long as thr performance on an ambulance call wasn't hindered, then it shouldn't matter if they play pirates in thr spare time. Sure it was childish, but it was also funny. Its too bad that they done explain how to develop a sense of humor in EMT class.

[Unregisteredfwghtwjheq]

yeah if they're not breaking any equipment or whatever, what's the big deal?

[Smoke Fire]

Spare me. Here we go again 30, working the strings from behind while you are lying to everyones face. Let's not forget 32 sitting there going hee hee hee, 31 is taking all the garbage and I come up smelling like a rose. Does anyone know what 5-25 does when he is around? That's ok, none of us do ther. So let's get a lame (really lame) duck (shame on you Shawn) in to write in against 31 because if you don't agree with 30 you are wrong. Must be nice to always be right. We'll find out Monday night weather 30 was able to pull everybodys strings, promise everyone a Lt's position and move things his way and make this 30's Amblulance Company!!! Good luck everyone.

[Unregistered69]

who's pulling 30's strings?Chris and Scott? Shawn on the board at l he can tech unlike Diane.

[Unregistered082]

maybe Shawn will understand that a dog running around the crew quarters pissing on the floor and walking on the table is not right and will put a end to it.

[Unregistered237890]

So what were the final results after last nights meeting? What does the chiefs office look like for '08.

[Smoke Fire]

Well 30 & 32's little plan failed again. 31 won. At l half the company is sane and didn't let the plan go through again. Hector also failed (thank god). If 30 and 32 want things to get better they better work on uniting the company instead of trying to drive it apart. Hopefully 30 didn't promise to many LT spots. Last years 10 LT's made them the laughing stock of the town. Especially since only 3 of them actually did some work.

[Unregisteredwow]

wow

[Unregistered12]

are the members not getting along?

[UnregisteredHerewego]

Well 30 & 32's little plan failed again. 31 won. At l half the company is sane and didn't let the plan go through again. Hector also failed (thank god). If 30 and 32 want things to get better they better work on uniting the company instead of trying to drive it apart. Hopefully 30 didn't promise to many LT spots. Last years 10 LT's made them the laughing stock of the town. Especially since only 3 of them actually did some work.

Yea, you tell them JJ. Guess you have to toot your own horn if no one else will toot it for you!

[Unregisteredwhatacrock]

Well 30 & 32's little plan failed again. 31 won. At l half the company is sane and didn't let the plan go through again. Hector also failed (thank god). If 30 and 32 want things to get better they better work on uniting the company instead of trying to drive it apart. Hopefully 30 didn't promise to many LT spots. Last years 10 LT's made them the laughing stock of the town. Especially since only 3 of them actually did some work.

Only 3? Well thats still one more than the number of chiefs who did anything last year!! 31 was non-existent last year! You talk about "Uniting the company" It's hard to unite the company when one of the chiefs doesn't make any effort to! Stop talking out your ass!!

[Unregisteredgetreal]

It's time we all face it. Sayville is not the department it once was!The infighting has taken it's toll.If you don't belong to the right clique you're ostracized.Many good members were driven away.so many remaining members are listening up but,"I don't answer those calls" or "I don't ride with him/her".Many things need to change not just for Sayville but for EMS.The people who are more concerned with thr rank then qualification should leave.Those who are more concerned with thr little power circle should think about the bigger picture, "patient care" maybe, ought to do the same.Think about the chiefs and officers honestly, how many do you want caring for a loved one in a crisis?The one good thing about going paid was the public has a better chance of getting the care they deserve.Going paid was the best thing Dennis did as chief.
I think it will pave the way for what really must come EMS.The tactical ambulance is working and will show those in town hall that it is more economical to have one service covering township.Do away with the 5 VAC's and the FD's that don't get out and have 1 service that is accountable.The days of quaint, community based, feel good ambulance is gone.The technology available the the EMS provider gets better every year but, the EMT's don't.Compassion and 130 hours training don't cut it any more! What if Grandma has the big one on the weekend when it's convient for do gooders to ride?
The answer,the future and what will and has to come is one township,one service,paid ALS 24/7

[Unregistered00]

Every member of Sayville, and in the EMS system for that matter, is one because of thr desire to help. We do what we can, and can afford different amounts of free time to do so. It's just a sign of the times. "Unregisteredgetreal", I find your complaints against one person or crew to be unfair, but your frustrations do not go unnoticed. I agree, the idea of "nghbors helping nghbors" has faded due to a changes in society. But let's not forget that we all wear the same logo and went through the same training to serve the same purpose.

[Unregistered00]

So how many did we give away today so far??????????

In December 2007, Sayville 24'ed 0.00% of thr calls.

[UnregisteredbasnfS]

yeah exactly. Congratulations Sayville. It's good to see the 3rd division VACs doing what needs to be done. Great month for all the 3rd.

[UnregisteredEMS]

Who is the cute Chief...Jamie??? Whats his story?? Very cute n sexy guy??

[Unregistered???]

Hot Guy....GAY??????or STR*???????

[Unregistered SIGNAL3]

did anyone hear them early Thursday morning a 5th singal 3 for a 11y/o unconscious.not good

[Unregistered00]

did anyone hear them early Thursday morning a 5th singal 3 for a 11y/o unconscious.not good

That statement is false. As per the dispatch protocols, a call is allowed a maximum of 2 Signal 3's before it is mutual aided. Perhaps you heard an additional Signal 3 requesting an ALS response. Nevertheless, the patient recved assistance from Sayville in a timely fashion.

[Unregistered SIGNAL3]

No Its Not False Its True. I Know What Protocol Says But What Happenend Are 2 Differnt Things.....

[UnregisteredHottie]

Who is the cute Chief...Jamie??? Whats his story?? Very cute n sexy guy??


Well??? Any Info on the hottie Chief??

[Unregisteredhfyhst]

Well??? Any Info on the hottie Chief??

easy 176!!!

[UnregisteredNo176]

Im not 176 who ever that is. Im not even from your corps. I just think hes very hot n sexy. Whats his story??

[Unregisterednfhgyu]

he used to be a stand in for Verne Troyer (mini-me)

[UnregisteredSo]

So does he have a steady girlfriend...boyfriend or what???

[Unregistered1234]

Yes he does....Easy does it

[UnregisteredWhat]

You didn't answer the question. Boyfriend or Girlfriend?

[Tee shirts]

How many of our volunteers have deserted to the per diem, part or full time paid across the county which leaves thr department or corps unmanned during the day. EMT cert bought and paid for by the taxpayers for the purpose of volunteering thr services in thr own communities. Maybe anyone who is a paid EMT should not be eligible for reduced rate from state DOH and thr department rmbursement. Watch out for your volunteer status for Service Award eligibility if you have paid staff answering a high percentage of your calls. Could become a problem. Duty crews are the way to go to assure volunteer staffing and by the way your firefighters should be accountable to get points toward Service Awards. After all 75% EMS vs maybe 25% fire and how many wet stuff on the red stuff out of that 25%? Check FRES stats! Without EMS numbers in your departments stats how many of you would have been able to get the community to vote for the Service awards? Let's see 7 EMS calls and transports approx 7 hours per day vs 3 fire calls-no fire false alarms 10 minutes, one fire in how many months? Use the manpower you already have. Train the members you already have. You may find more will want to become an EMT when they see how much good they can do. You need EMS to justify your budgets. Work for your %%%%. Don't just wear the tee and walk all proud and everything around town.

[Unregisteredfqfqwf]

sayville ambulance isn't fire.

[UnregisteredResident]

Every member of Sayville, and in the EMS system for that matter, is one because of thr desire to help. We do what we can, and can afford different amounts of free time to do so. It's just a sign of the times. "Unregisteredgetreal", I find your complaints against one person or crew to be unfair, but your frustrations do not go unnoticed. I agree, the idea of "nghbors helping nghbors" has faded due to a changes in society. But let's not forget that we all wear the same logo and went through the same training to serve the same purpose.

I needed Community for my mother Wednesday night and they responded very quickly. My mom wasn't doing to well and the tech in charge got her in the ambulance quickly and started working on her. Before I knew it, she was getting IV fluids and she was alert and talking to me. This tech was a true proffesional and I am very grateful for the care he gave my mother. Thank you to all the fine people who give of thr time at Community and all across Long Island!!

[Unregisterehgfi]

sayville ems certainly isn't fire or even somewhat related. double check next time before trying to making us look bad. the only fire department in the area that even responds to ems calls is bohemia, and thr rescue truck IS IN FACT run by actual emts. so for the 500 some odd calls we've covered since january alone, we will proudly walk around with our tee-shirts on.

[Unregistered1234]

Hold on tight the S--- is about to hit the fan... Now your all gonna hear all the bad things... who ever reads this remember not everyone is involved. Just sit back and read on.....

[thankful neighbor]

I would just like to say thank you very much to Sayville Ambulance for there professionalism, intelligence and kindness in my time of need. The Sayville Emt was very professional and knowledgeable despite my initial skepticism of his verrrrry young look. Also the Emt that drove the ambulance was extremely kind and helpful and both administered me the treatment I needed. Ive been a resident of Sayville for many years and I previously had not realized how wonderful the people who volunteer in this town are. Thank you again and god bless you and your department deserve the world!

[Unregistered6969]

give me more boobies .I liked the boobies!

[Unregistered120]

leave it

[UnregisteredHottie?]

Hows that hot stud Chief Jamie of yours doin??

[696969]

Oh him? He's taking over the county....its ok its a good thing

[Unregistered9999992]

I hear he got bumped up to 31, cause the old 31 resigned from the company completely.

[Unregistered46578]

yes. you heard right, because that is exactly what happened.

[paid a plus]

anyone notice that since sayville went paid we are answering a lot less of there 24s? bout time!your volleys never went out. ive driven passed there during calls and notice a bunch of cars there, but no ambulance out.not trying to bash even though it sounds that way. everyone is paid now. im just saying its about time. if u really did have a 0% 24 in december i hope u thanked the paid for that. depatments gotta do what they gotta do to keep them looking good

[Unregisteredr7uyv]

well how bout we thank the handful of regular members that bust thr ass' covering these calls too. it's always the same ones, and sayville would be screwed without them.

[Unregisteredkiuy89yuj]

"You questioned how the Town Tac Ambulance got on 800 while the rest of the county suffers with poor communications?? Well before the commissioner blows smoke up your ass here is the real story. You see the president of the Town Ambulance Association just happens to be the Assistant Chief of the Sayville Community Ambulance, who works for FRES. He runs to Uncle Joey crying that the Town Tac ambulances are having problems hearing medcom (when in fact they are sleeping in the ambulance building and not “patrolling” the area like they should be) So Uncle Joey lets them use the 800 radio because no other agency would be on it and if medcom calls them they would hear it – Now this 800 talk group is something that has been STRICTLY off limits to EVERY EMS AGENCY in the county since day 1, just ask anyone at Suffolk EMS … So when you agency gets a letter from the Commissioner trying to cover up and lye about his decision to let the Tac ambulance use the 800 radio by telling you it was done as a pilot program to test a new 800 talk group you will know ahead of time that it is complete BULL SHIT ! Thanks to IntheKnowToo for opening up this cans of worms, and Jamie for shooting off his big mouth and confirming it."

[Frank Tuttle...]

"You questioned how the Town Tac Ambulance got on 800 while the rest of the county suffers with poor communications?? Well before the commissioner blows smoke up your ass here is the real story. You see the president of the Town Ambulance Association just happens to be the Assistant Chief of the Sayville Community Ambulance, who works for FRES. He runs to Uncle Joey crying that the Town Tac ambulances are having problems hearing medcom (when in fact they are sleeping in the ambulance building and not “patrolling” the area like they should be) So Uncle Joey lets them use the 800 radio because no other agency would be on it and if medcom calls them they would hear it – Now this 800 talk group is something that has been STRICTLY off limits to EVERY EMS AGENCY in the county since day 1, just ask anyone at Suffolk EMS … So when you agency gets a letter from the Commissioner trying to cover up and lye about his decision to let the Tac ambulance use the 800 radio by telling you it was done as a pilot program to test a new 800 talk group you will know ahead of time that it is complete BULL SHIT ! Thanks to IntheKnowToo for opening up this cans of worms, and Jamie for shooting off his big mouth and confirming it."

Oh it gets better, Poor Jaime and his smug attitude, he quit his job twice in the last month. You see his very pretty girlfried works at FRES just like he did. One time they had a big fight and the pussy, yes that pussy Jamie quit his job over the spat.

Well Jaime askes for his job back and he's oked to come back, But low and behold some more shit comes his way, like know he's stalking her and had to be asked to resign. My gues is he'll be the next Deputy Commissioner NOT, that's saved for another 1st divisioner who currently works at FRES.

THis is all my opinion, believe it or don't.

[MCCCCAR]

Doesn't the North Shore IFR medic cars use a private 800 line??????
Is this the same for the tac-units???????????
Who knew?????????

[Unregisteredwho?]

I like the new unmarked chief vehicles. I heard they were leftover federal vehicles. Even armor platted?
Is it true that the chief seals are removable "magnetic". Are they first responders? If so, how did they pass nys's certification inspection as per article 800? The white on white reflective lettering is not "clearly visible". There is no department name on the back. I thought the nys ems certification stickers are also to be clearly visible on three sides. I do not think that the stickers behind the blacked-out windows are visible enough.

nysdoh article 800
(e) display on the exterior of both sides and the back of all ambulances and emergency ambulance service vehicles the name of the service in letters not less than 3 inches in hght and clearly legible. The logo provided by the department shall also be displayed on both sides and the back of every ambulance and shall be removed upon sale or transfer of the vehicle;

Are these vehicles used to go somewhere you don't want people to know who you are? Do you rent them out as limos? Are your chief vehicles allowed to leave Suffolk County? Just wondering?

[UnregisteredLOL]

listen you shit-weasel, go back to south country EMS no one wants you here.

[Unregisteredenniemeenimoo]

I like the new unmarked chief vehicles. I heard they were leftover federal vehicles. Even armor platted?
Is it true that the chief seals are removable "magnetic". Are they first responders? If so, how did they pass nys's certification inspection as per article 800? The white on white reflective lettering is not "clearly visible". There is no department name on the back. I thought the nys ems certification stickers are also to be clearly visible on three sides. I do not think that the stickers behind the blacked-out windows are visible enough.

nysdoh article 800
(e) display on the exterior of both sides and the back of all ambulances and emergency ambulance service vehicles the name of the service in letters not less than 3 inches in hght and clearly legible. The logo provided by the department shall also be displayed on both sides and the back of every ambulance and shall be removed upon sale or transfer of the vehicle;

Are these vehicles used to go somewhere you don't want people to know who you are? Do you rent them out as limos? Are your chief vehicles allowed to leave Suffolk County? Just wondering?

These new chief vehicles, or responder vehicles......depends on what magnetic seal is on.......are a joke! It's all little 31's doing. He thinks he's the shit and he can do what he wants! Yea, he's a cop, but thinks his job is much more than that! He's super stealth, undercover, anti-terrorist, gonna save the world guy! Yo loser, your a cop, not a secret agent!! Grow up!!

Back to these vehicles. They just scream "We are trying to cover up something" or "We are up to no good" or "I have a small penis, so I make up for it with my cool super stealth chief vehicle that I could put a responder magnet on so I don't have to hear too much shit about doing what I did to this vehicle from the regular members"

Again, grow up! Have a chief/responder vehicle that let's the tax paying public who bought the vehicle, know who it belongs too! And have it clearly marked like every other EMS agency here in Suffolk County!!

This character Jamie is going to be the ruination of Community Ambulance!!

[Unregisteredscems]

Not just a cop.He's a choo-choo cop

[billybadass]

well how bout we thank the handful of regular members that bust thr ass' covering these calls too. it's always the same ones, and sayville would be screwed without them.

Yea we can thank just about 1 member for actually getting out on the calls...Thanks Gonzo

[Unregistered2394]

yeah, thank the one member who has ABSOLUTLEY nothing else to do with his life but dedicate it entirely to community ambulance. he is so awesome.

[Unregistered1234]

yeah, thank the one member who has ABSOLUTLEY nothing else to do with his life but dedicate it entirely to community ambulance. he is so awesome.

Yes! Thank you to Gonzo for doing everything he does! He, unlike the Dirt Bags & Trash that write all over this report is doing something productive with his spare time. Maybe the people on here, if they have so much to say, should get a little involved and off thr asses!

[Unregistered......]

These new chief vehicles, or responder vehicles......depends on what magnetic seal is on.......are a joke! It's all little 31's doing. He thinks he's the shit and he can do what he wants! Yea, he's a cop, but thinks his job is much more than that! He's super stealth, undercover, anti-terrorist, gonna save the world guy! Yo loser, your a cop, not a secret agent!! Grow up!!

Back to these vehicles. They just scream "We are trying to cover up something" or "We are up to no good" or "I have a small penis, so I make up for it with my cool super stealth chief vehicle that I could put a responder magnet on so I don't have to hear too much shit about doing what I did to this vehicle from the regular members"

Again, grow up! Have a chief/responder vehicle that let's the tax paying public who bought the vehicle, know who it belongs too! And have it clearly marked like every other EMS agency here in Suffolk County!!

This character Jamie is going to be the ruination of Community Ambulance!!


Ask Jamie why he dosen't work at FRES no longer?

[Unregisteredcute]

Hes a cute Little Stud though. Does he have a girlfriend/boyfriend?

[Unregistered958822]

I actually seen the infamous unmarked chief vehicle on yaphank av. today. Nice blacked out windows chrome rims,rain guards with a light bar and mean while theres calls in sayvile going unanswered.

[Unregisteredsddwe3wee]

I actually seen the infamous unmarked chief vehicle on yaphank av. today. Nice blacked out windows chrome rims,rain guards with a light bar and mean while theres calls in sayvile going unanswered.

Because he's never allowed to leave his district? Learn how to spell a s s hole.

[bob sant]

ttt

[bob sant]

Hi...I think part of the problem with community as I suspect many Long Island emerg providers,is you got away from the NGHBOR HELPING NGHBOR concept. I tried to join community a few years ago as a driver only and was completly fluffed off. Now I find out hey have fireman drivers or a few other "invitation only"(or so it seems) drivers, but if you come down to help in this capacity without an in you are turned away. I would imagine there are others as I,who want to help in such a vital necessary way but arent able,for many reasons,to attend medical classes and recertification tests. With volunteering at a low OPEN the doors to all of us in the community to serve IN ALL OF OUR ambulance company. I have friends in the FD and they tell me many times espiciall in the day ambulances cant roll because a driver is needed or they snatch a fireman on the call. Isnt that silly when you turn people away. OPEN the doors to some who can drive or dispatch or help in a support activity a9fundraising etc)even if it was as a associate non voting member I WANT TO HELP!!! PS; I am not a jilted turned down applicant ...even worse I WAS JUST FLUFFED OFF!!!ood m

[Unregisteredyuhhuhhkh]

and don't you love the big WE NEED HELP banner hanging outside thr hq? If you're going to turn people away left and right and make it difficult for them to even be a member there, maybe they should replace that banner with WE'RE NOT INTERESTED.

[Unregistered752]

and don't you love the big WE NEED HELP banner hanging outside thr hq? If you're going to turn people away left and right and make it difficult for them to even be a member there, maybe they should replace that banner with WE'RE NOT INTERESTED.

better yet, it should read... " if we do take you, you'll probably be miserable anyway, the people here are rather rude."

[Unregisteredtoi31]

This character Jamie is going to be the ruination of Community Ambulance!!
Dump his lil' bald ass out of office before it's too late!

[Unregisteredxyz]

here here!

[meowmix]

get your fat asses off the comp and go on calls and stop bitching....go...

[Unregisteredsignal 3]

signal 3 signal 3 signal 3 24 to holbrook! all sayvac is good for.

[Unregistered656565]

signal 3 signal 3 signal 3 24 to holbrook! all sayvac is good for.

wow is that all you can come up with...f*cking loser

[Unregistered752]

As a former member in good standing ( moved, wasn't tossed) just curious, aside from whining about Jamie ( seriously is there a chief in existance ANYWHERE who wasn't bitched about) does anything constructive ever get said here?

[Unregistered150]

signal 3 signal 3 signal 3 24 to holbrook! all sayvac is good for.

Let's not forget how SayVac assisted the Holbrook FD in the past few months. It's a shame how quickly you let your attitude embarass yourself.

[Unregistered09235iknerf]

of course nothing good ever gets said here, it's exactly what happens INSIDE community ambulance. nothing positive or purposeful is ever accomplished because all everyone gives a shit is about themselves.

[Unregisteredtoiboard]

Case in point... those expensive gas guzzling stealth SUV's that Jamie had to have. Nothing but selfish greed using the taxpayer's dollars to play chief!

[Unregistereddfdsfdsfsd]

everyone who is trashing these members and the community ambulance should register a name and not hind behind some unregistered name

[Unregistereddfdsfdsfsd]

hide*

[informedmembers]

Lets not forget that Sayville is one of the top five busiest Departments in Suffolk County and in the State. one look at our facilities will tell you that our monies are hardly spent lavishly on things. The purchase of new vehicles for our Chief is hardly an over expense of our monies. Look elsewhere if your so disgruntled with the way things are run. you spent more energy posting your comment they you probably due riding...

[Unregisteredwhatever]

there is not a post on this thread where ANYONE has stated who they really were. they'd just get ripped up for it anyway. notice how your unregistered as well. hmmm.

[Unregisteredwaaaaa]

from a member next door!

THANK GOD YOU GUYS WENT PAID! i had driving to your district and taxpayers asking me hey i thought i pay for sayville ambulance and having to explain to the what a signal 3 is

[UnregisteredEATME]

from a member next door!

THANK GOD YOU GUYS WENT PAID! i had driving to your district and taxpayers asking me hey i thought i pay for sayville ambulance and having to explain to the what a signal 3 is

JERK

[growupjamie]

Grow up Jamie you little pussy

[Billybadass]

Listen the only reason why calls are starting to get out is because of the paid people. At l they get the Alpha Sicks out while members only magically are all available for the Delta MVA's or Echo calls.

[UnregisteredXOXO]

The study of proverbs is called paremiology (from Greek παροιμία - paroimía, "proverb") and can be dated back as far as Aristotle. Paremiography, on the other hand, is the collection of proverbs. A prominent proverb scholar in the United States is Wolfgang Mieder. He has written or edited over 50 books on the subject, edits the journal Proverbium, has written innumerable articles on proverbs, and is very widely cited by other proverb scholars. Mieder defines the term proverb as follows:

A proverb is a short, generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorizable form and which is handed down from generation to generation.

—Mieder 1985:119; also in Mieder 1993:24
Subgenres include proverbial comparisons (“as busy as a bee”), proverbial interrogatives (“Does a chicken have lips?”) and twin formulas (“give and take”).

Another subcategory are wellerisms, named after Sam Weller from Charles Dickens's The Pickwick Papers (1837). They are constructed in a triadic manner which consists of a statement (often a proverb), an identification of a speaker (person or animal) and a phrase that places the statement into an unexpected situation. Ex.: “Every evil is followed by some good,” as the man said when his wife died the day after he became bankrupt.

Yet another category of proverb is the "anti-proverb" (Mieder and Litovkina 2002). In such cases, people twist familiar proverbs to change the meaning. Sometimes the result is merely humorous, but the most spectacular examples result in the opposite meaning of the standard proverb. Examples include, "Nerds of a feather flock together", "Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and likely to talk about it," and "Absence makes the heart grow wander".

A similar form is proverbial expressions (“to bite the dust”). The difference is that proverbs are unchangeable sentences, while proverbial expressions permit alterations to fit the grammar of the context.[1]

Another close construction is an allusion to a proverb, such as "The new broom will sweep clean." [1]

Typical stylistic features of proverbs (as Shirley Arora points out in her article, The Perception of Proverbiality (1984)) are:

alliteration (Forgive and forget)
parallelism (Nothing ventured, nothing gained)
rhyme (When the cat is away, the mice will play)
ellipsis (Once bitten, twice shy)
In some languages, assonance, the repetition of a vowel, is also exploited in forming artistic proverbs, such as the following extreme example from Oromo, of Ethiopia.

kan mana baala, a’laa gaala (“A leaf at home, but a camel elsewhere"; somebody who has a big reputation among those who do not know him well.)
Internal features that can be found quite frequently include :

hyperbole (All is fair in love and war)
paradox
personification (Hunger is the best cook)
To make the respective statement more general most proverbs are based on a metaphor. Further typical features of the proverb are its shortness (average: seven words), and the fact that its author is generally unknown (otherwise it would be a quotation).

In the article “Tensions in Proverbs: More Light on International Understanding,” Joseph Raymond comments on what common Russian proverbs from the 1700s and 1800s portray: Potent antiauthoritarian proverbs reflected tensions between the Russian people and the Czar. The rollickingly malicious undertone of these folk verbalizations constitutes what might be labeled a ‘paremiological revolt.’ To avoid openly criticizing a given authority or cultural pattern, folk take recourse to proverbial expressions which voice personal tensions in a tone of generalized consent. Thus, personal involvement is linked with public opinion [2] Proverbs that speak to the political disgruntlement include: “When the Czar spits into the soup dish, it fairly bursts with pride”; “If the Czar be a rhymester, woe be to the poets”; and “The hen of the Czarina herself does not lay swan’s eggs.” While none of these proverbs state directly, “I hate the Czar and detest my situation” (which would have been incredibly dangerous), they do get thr points across.

Proverbs are found in many parts of the world, but some areas seem to have richer stores of proverbs than others (such as West Africa), while others have hardly any (North and South America) (Mieder 2004:108,109).

Proverbs are often borrowed across lines of language, religion, and even time. For example, a proverb of the approximate form “No flies enter a mouth that is shut” is currently found in Spain, Ethiopia, and many countries in between. It is embraced as a true local proverb in many places and should not be excluded in any collection of proverbs because it is shared by the nghbors. However, though it has gone through multiple languages and millennia, the proverb can be traced back to an ancient Babylonian proverb (Pritchard 1958:146).

Proverbs are used by speakers for a variety of purposes. Sometimes they are used as a way of saying something gently, in a vled way (Obeng 1996). Other times, they are used to carry more wght in a discussion, a weak person is able to enlist the tradition of the ancestors to support his position. Proverbs can also be used to simply make a conversation/discussion more lively. In many parts of the world, the use of proverbs is a mark of bng a good orator.

The study of proverbs has application in a number of fields. Clearly, those who study folklore and literature are interested in them, but scholars from a variety of fields have found ways to profitably incorporate the study proverbs. For example, they have been used to study abstract reasoning of children, acculturation of immigrants, intelligence, the differing mental processes in mental illness, cultural themes, etc. Proverbs have also been incorporated into the strategies of social workers, teachers, preachers, and even politicians. (For the deliberate use of proverbs as a propaganda tool by Nazis, see Mieder 1982.)

There are collections of saying that give suggestions for how to play games, such as dominoes (Borajo et al 1990) and the Oriental board game go (Mitchell 2001). However, these are not prototypical proverbs in that thr application is limited to one domain.

[Unregistered31OK]

The kidneys are complicated organs that have numerous biological roles. Thr primary role is to maintain the homeostatic balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting metabolites (such as urea) and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water, as urine. Because the kidneys are poised to sense plasma concentrations of ions such as sodium, potassium, hydrogen, oxygen, and compounds such as amino acids, creatinine, bicarbonate, and glucose, they are important regulators of blood pressure, glucose metabolism, and erythropoiesis (the process by which red blood cells (erythrocytes) are produced). The medical field that studies the kidneys and diseases of the kidney is called nephrology[1]. The prefix nephro- meaning kidney is from the Ancient Greek word nephros (νεφρός); the adjective renal meaning related to the kidney is from Latin rēnēs, meaning kidneys. [2]

[Unregistered30NOTSOMUCH]

Respiratory function
The lungs are very important. Energy production to aerobic respiration requires oxygen and glucose and produces carbon dioxide as a gaseous waste product, creating a need for an efficient means of oxygen delivery to cells and excretion of carbon dioxide from cells. In small organisms, such as single-celled bacteria, this process of gas exchange can take place entirely by simple diffusion. In larger organisms, this is not possible; only a small proportion of cells are close enough to the surface for oxygen from the atmosphere to enter them through diffusion. Two major adaptations made it possible for organisms to attain great multicellularity: an efficient circulatory system that conveyed gases to and from the deepest tissues in the body, and a large, internalized respiratory system that centralized the task of obtaining oxygen from the atmosphere and bringing it into the body, whence it could rapidly be distributed to all the circulatory system. The lungs also protect the heart from damage to a certain degree.

In air-breathing vertebrates, respiration occurs in a series of steps. Air is brought into the animal via the airways — in reptiles, birds and mammals this often consists of the nose; the pharynx; the larynx; the trachea (also called the windpipe); the bronchi and bronchioles; and the terminal branches of the respiratory tree. The lungs of mammals are a rich lattice of alveoli, which provide an enormous surface area for gas exchange. A network of fine capillaries allows transport of blood over the surface of alveoli. Oxygen from the air inside the alveoli diffuses into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the alveoli, both across thin alveolar membranes.

The drawing and expulsion of air is driven by muscular action; in early tetrapods, air was driven into the lungs by the pharyngeal muscles, whereas in reptiles, birds and mammals a more complicated musculoskeletal system is used. In the mammal, a large muscle, the diaphragm (in addition to the internal intercostal muscles) drives ventilation by periodically altering the intra-thoracic volume and pressure; by increasing volume and thus decreasing pressure, air flows into the airways down a pressure gradient, and by reducing volume and increasing pressure, the reverse occurs. During normal breathing, expiration is passive and no muscles are contracted (the diaphragm relaxes).

Another name for this inspiration and expulsion of air is ventilation. Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that a person can exhale after maximum inhalation. A person's vital capacity can be measured by a spirometer (spirometry). In combination with other physiological measurements, the vital capacity can help make a diagnosis of underlying lung disease.


[edit] Non respiratory functions
In addition, the lungs also:

influence the concentration of some biologic substances and drugs used in medicine in blood
convert of angiotensin I to angiotensin II by the action of angiotensin-converting enzyme
filter out small blood clots formed in vns
alter the pH of blood by facilitating alterations in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide
may serve as a layer of soft, shock-absorbent protection for the heart, which the lungs flank and nearly enclose.
filter out gas micro-bubbles occurring in the venous blood stream such as those created after SCUBA diving (decompression).[2]

[edit] Mammalian lungs
Further information: Human lung
The lungs of mammals have a spongy texture and are honeycombed with epithelium having a much larger surface area in total than the outer surface area of the lung itself. The lungs of humans are typical of this type of lung.

Breathing is largely driven by the muscular diaphragm at the bottom of the thorax. Contraction of the diaphragm pulls the bottom of the cavity in which the lung is enclosed downward. Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities; it flows through the larynx and into the trachea, which branches out into the main bronchi and then subsequent divisions. During exercise, the diaphragm contracts, forcing the air out more quickly and forcefully. The rib cage itself is also able to expand and contract to some degree, through the action of other respiratory and accessory respiratory muscles. As a result, air is sucked into or expelled out of the lungs, always moving down its pressure gradient. This type of lung is known as a bellows lung as it resembles a blacksmith's bellows.[3]


[edit] Anatomy
In humans, the trachea divides into the two main bronchi that enter the roots of the lungs. The bronchi continue to divide within the lung, and after multiple divisions, give rise to bronchioles. The bronchial tree continues branching until it reaches the level of terminal bronchioles, which lead to alveolar sacs. Alveolar sacs are made up of clusters of alveoli, like individual grapes within a bunch. The individual alveoli are tightly wrapped in blood vessels, and it is here that gas exchange actually occurs. Deoxygenated blood from the heart is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into blood and is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the hemoglobin of the erythrocytes. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary vns to be pumped back into systemic circulation.

[Unregistered32GREAT]

Function
Vertebrate brains recve signals through nerves arriving from the sensors of the organism. These signals are then processed throughout the central nervous system; reactions are formulated based upon reflex and learned experiences. A similarly extensive nerve network delivers signals from a brain to control important muscles throughout the body. Anatomically, the majority of afferent and efferent nerves (with the exception of the cranial nerves) are connected to the spinal cord, which then transfers the signals to and from the brain.

Sensory input is processed by the brain to recognize danger, find food, identify potential mates, and perform more sophisticated functions. Visual, touch, and auditory sensory pathways of vertebrates are routed to specific nucl of the thalamus and then to regions of the cerebral cortex that are specific to each sensory system, the visual system, the auditory system, and the somatosensory system. Olfactory pathways are routed to the olfactory bulb, then to various parts of the olfactory system. Taste is routed through the brainstem and then to other portions of the gustatory system.

To control movement the brain has several parallel systems of muscle control. The motor system controls voluntary muscle movement, aided by the motor cortex, cerebellum, and the basal ganglia. The system eventually projects to the spinal cord and then out to the muscle effectors. Nucl in the brain stem control many involuntary muscle functions such as heart rate and breathing. In addition, many automatic acts (simple reflexes, locomotion) can be controlled by the spinal cord alone.

Brains also produce a portion of the body's hormones that can influence organs and glands elsewhere in a body—conversely, brains also react to hormones produced elsewhere in the body. In mammals, the hormones that regulate hormone production throughout the body are produced in the brain by the structure called the pituitary gland.

Evidence strongly suggests that developed brains derive consciousness from the complex interactions between the numerous systems within the brain. Cognitive processing in mammals occurs in the cerebral cortex but relies on midbrain and limbic functions as well. Among "younger" (in an evolutionary sense) vertebrates, advanced processing involves progressively rostral (forward) regions of the brain.

Hormones, incoming sensory information, and cognitive processing performed by the brain determine the brain state. Stimulus from any source can trigger a general arousal process that focuses cortical operations to processing of the new information. This focusing of cognition is known as attention. Cognitive priorities are constantly shifted by a variety of factors such as hunger, fatigue, belief, unfamiliar information, or threat. The simplest dichotomy related to the processing of threats is the fight-or-flight response mediated by the amygdala and other limbic structures.


[edit] Neurotransmitter systems
Main article: Neurotransmitter systems
Neurons expressing certain types of neurotransmitters sometimes form distinct systems, where activation of the system causes effects in large volumes of the brain, called volume transmission.

The major neurotransmitter systems are the noradrenaline (norepinephrine) system, the dopamine system, the serotonin system and the cholinergic system.

Drugs targeting the neurotransmitter of such systems affects the whole system, which explains the mode of action of many drugs;

Cocaine, for example, blocks the reuptake of dopamine, leaving these neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap longer.
Prozac is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), hence potentiating the effect of naturally released serotonin.
AMPT prevents the conversion of tyrosine to L-DOPA, the precursor to dopamine; reserpine prevents dopamine storage within vesicles; and deprenyl inhibits monoamine oxidase (MAO)-B and thus increases dopamine levels.
Diseases may affect specific neurotransmitter systems. For example, Parkinson's disease is at l in part related to failure of dopaminergic cells in deep-brain nucl, for example the substantia nigra. Treatments potentiating the effect of dopamine precursors have been proposed and effected, with moderate success.

[UnregisteredLUVGONZO]

William Shakespeare (baptised 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616)[a] was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist.[1] He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "The Bard"). His surviving works consist of 38 plays,[b] 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language, and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.[2]

Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon. At the age of 18 he married Anne Hathaway, who bore him three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Between 1585 and 1592 he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part owner of the playing company the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive, and there has been considerable speculation about such matters as his sexuality, religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others.[3]

Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1590 and 1613. His early plays were mainly comedies and histories, genres he raised to the peak of sophistication and artistry by the end of the sixteenth century. Next he wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, King Lear, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest examples in the English language. In his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime, and in 1623 two of his former theatrical colleagues published the First Folio, a collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare's.

Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day, but his reputation did not rise to its present hghts until the nineteenth century. The Romantics, in particular, acclaimed Shakespeare's genius, and the Victorians hero-worshipped Shakespeare with a reverence that George Bernard Shaw called "bardolatry".[4] In the twentieth century, his work was repeatedly adopted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance. His plays remain highly popular today and are consistently performed and rnterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world.


Life
Main article: Shakespeare's life

Early life

John Shakespeare's house in Stratford-upon-Avon
Shakespeare's Coat of ArmsWilliam Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, a successful glover and alderman originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden, the daughter of an affluent landowning farmer.[5] He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised on 26 April 1564. His unknown birthday is traditionally observed on 23 April, St George's Day.[6] This date, which can be traced back to an ghteenth-century scholar's mistake, has proved appealing because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616.[7] He was the third child of ght and the eldest surviving son.[8]

Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare was educated at the King's New School in Stratford,[9] a free school chartered in 1553,[10] about a quarter of a mile from his home. Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but the curriculum was dictated by law throughout England,[11] and the school would have provided an intensive education in Latin grammar and the classics.[12] At the age of 18, Shakespeare married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. Two of Hathaway's nghbours posted bonds the next day as surety that there were no impediments to the marriage.[13] The couple may have arranged the ceremony in some haste, since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times.[14] Anne's pregnancy could have been the reason for this. Six months after the marriage, she gave birth to a daughter, Susanna, who was baptised on 26 May 1583.[15] Twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised on 2 February 1585.[16] Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried on 11 August 1596.[17]

After the birth of the twins, there are few historical traces of Shakespeare until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. Because of this gap, scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare's "lost years".[18] Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare’s first biographer, recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching.[19] Another ghteenth-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London.[20] John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster.[21] Some twentieth-century scholars have suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire, a Catholic landowner who named a certain "William Shakeshafte" in his will.[22] No evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death

[UnregisteredXOXOXOXO]

Mother Teresa (Albanian: Nënë Tereza, Agnes Gonxhe Bojaxhiu, Macedonian: Агнес Гонџа Бојаџиу, Latinic: Agnes Gondža Bojadžiu; IPA: ['agnɛs 'gɔndʒa bɔ'jadʒu]) (August 26, 1910 – September 5, 1997) was an Albanian-born Roman Catholic nun with Indian citizenship[2] who founded the Missionaries of Charity in Kolkata (Calcutta), India in 1950. For over forty years she ministered to the poor, sick, orphaned, and dying, while guiding the Missionaries of Charity's expansion, first throughout India and then in other countries.

By the 1970s she had become internationally famed as a humanitarian and advocate for the poor and helpless, due in part to a documentary, and book, Something Beautiful for God by Malcolm Muggeridge. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 and India's highest civilian honor, the Bharat Ratna, in 1980 for her humanitarian work. Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity continued to expand, and at the time of her death it was operating 610 missions in 123 countries, including hospices and homes for people with HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis, soup kitchens, children's and family counseling programs, orphanages, and schools.

Following her death she was beatified by Pope John Paul II and given the title Blessed Teresa of Calcutta.[3][4]

Coverage of Mother Teresa around the world has been mainly positive, and she has been praised by many individuals, governments and organisations; however, in addition to this positive reaction, she has faced a diverse range of criticism. These include objections by various non-Christians, including the athsts Christopher Hitchens and Aroup Chatterjee and the Hindu Vishva Hindu Parishad, against the proselytizing focus of her work; this included alleged baptisms of the dying, a strong pro-life stance on abortion and a belief in the spiritual goodness of poverty. Several medical journals also criticised the standard of medical care in her hospices, and concerns were raised about the opaque nature in which donated money was spent.

Contents [hide]
1 Early life
2 Missionaries of Charity
3 International charity
4 Declining health and death
5 Global recognition and awards
5.1 Reception in India
5.2 Reception in the rest of the world
6 Spiritual life
7 Influence in the world
8 Miracle and beatification
9 Commemoration
10 See also
11 Books
12 Notes
13 Further reading
14 External links
14.1 General
14.2 Criticism



Agnes Gonxha (Albanian for "rosebud") Bojaxhiu was born on August 26, 1910, in Skopje, now the capital of the Republic of Macedonia.[5] She was the youngest of the children of a family from Shkodër, Albania, born to Nikola and Dranafile (Albanian for "rose", nicknamed "Drone") Bojaxhiu. Nikollë[5] was involved in Albanian politics. In 1919, after a political meeting he fell ill and died when Agnes was about ght years old.[5] After her father's death, her mother raised her as a Roman Catholic. According to a biography by Joan Graff Clucas, in her early years Agnes was fascinated by stories of the lives of missionaries and thr service, and by age 12 was convinced that she should commit herself to a religious life.[6] She left home at age 18 to join the Sisters of Loreto as a missionary. She never again saw her mother or sister.[7]

Agnes initially went to the Loreto Abbey in Rathfarnham, Ireland to learn English, the language the Sisters of Loreto used to teach school children in India.[8] She arrived in India in 1929, and began her novitiate in Darjeeling, near the Himalayan mountains.[9] She took her first religious vows as a nun on May 24, 1931. At that time she chose the name Teresa after Thérèse de Lisieux, the patron saint of missionaries.[10] She took her solemn vows on May 14, 1937, while serving as a teacher at the Loreto convent school in ern Calcutta.[11][12]

Although Teresa enjoyed teaching at the school, she was increasingly disturbed by the poverty surrounding her in Calcutta.[13] A famine in 1943 brought misery and death to the city; and the outbreak of Hindu/Muslim violence in August 1946 plunged the city into despair and horror.[14]


Missionaries of Charity
On September 10, 1946, Teresa experienced what she later described as "the call within the call" while traveling to the Loreto convent in Darjeeling for her annual retreat. "I was to leave the convent and help the poor while living among them. It was an order. To fail would have been to break the faith."[15] She began her missionary work with the poor in 1948, replacing her traditional Loreto habit with a simple white cotton chira decorated with a blue border, adopted Indian citizenship, and ventured out into the slums."[16][17] Initially she started a school in Motijhil; soon she started tending to the needs of the destitute and starving.[18] Her efforts quickly caught the attention of Indian officials, including the Prime Minister, who expressed his appreciation.[19]

Teresa wrote in her diary that her first year was fraught with difficulties. She had no income and had to resort to begging for food and supplies. Teresa experienced doubt, loneliness and the temptation to return to the comfort of convent life during these early months. She wrote in her diary:

“ Our Lord wants me to be a free nun covered with the poverty of the cross. Today I learned a good lesson. The poverty of the poor must be so hard for them. While looking for a home I walked and walked till my arms and legs ached. I thought how much they must ache in body and soul, looking for a home, food and health. Then the comfort of Loreto [her former order] came to tempt me. 'You have only to say the word and all that will be yours again,' the Tempter kept on saying ... Of free choice, my God, and out of love for you, I desire to remain and do whatever be your Holy will in my regard. I did not let a single tear come.[20] ”

Teresa recved Vatican permission on October 7, 1950 to start the diocesan congregation that would become the Missionaries of Charity.[21] Its mission was to care for, in her own words, "the hungry, the naked, the homeless, the crippled, the blind, the lepers, all those people who feel unwanted, unloved, uncared for throughout society, people that have become a burden to the society and are shunned by everyone." It began as a small order with 13 members in Calcutta; today it has more than 4,000 nuns running orphanages, AIDS hospices, and charity centers worldwide, and caring for refugees, the blind, disabled, aged, alcoholics, the poor and homeless, and victims of floods, epidemics, and famine.[22]

In 1952 Mother Teresa opened the first Home for the Dying in space made available by the City of Calcutta. With the help of Indian officials she converted an abandoned Hindu temple into the Kalighat Home for the Dying, a free hospice for the poor. She renamed it Kalighat, the Home of the Pure Heart (Nirmal Hriday).[23] Those brought to the home recved medical attention and were afforded the opportunity to die with dignity, according to the rituals of thr faith; Muslims were read the Quran, Hindus recved water from the Ganges, and Catholics recved the Last Rites.[24] "A beautiful death," she said, "is for people who lived like animals to die like angels — loved and wanted."[24] Mother Teresa soon opened a home for those suffering from Hansen's disease, commonly known as leprosy, and called the hospice Shanti Nagar (City of Peace).[25] The Missionaries of Charity also established several leprosy outreach clinics throughout Calcutta, providing medication, bandages and food.

As the Missionaries of Charity took in increasing numbers of lost children, Mother Teresa felt the need to create a home for them. In 1955 she opened the Nirmala Shishu Bhavan, the Children's Home of the Immaculate Heart, as a haven for orphans and homeless youth.[26]

The order soon began to attract both recruits and charitable donations, and by the 1960s had opened hospices, orphanages, and leper houses all over India. Mother Teresa then expanded the order throughout the globe. Its first house outside India opened in Venezuela in 1965 with five sisters.[27] Others followed in Rome, Tanzania, and Austria in 1968; during the 1970s the order opened houses and foundations in dozens of countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the United States.[28] Her philosophy and implementation have faced some criticism. While noting how little evidence Mother Teresa's critics were able to find against her, David Scott wrote that Mother Teresa limited herself to keeping people alive rather than tackling poverty itself.[29] She has also been criticized for her view on suffering: according to an article in the Alberta Report, she felt that suffering would bring people closer to Jesus.[30] The quality of care offered to terminally ill patients in the Homes for the Dying has been criticised in the medical press, notably The Lancet and the British Medical Journal, which reported the reuse of hypodermic needles, poor living conditions, including the use of cold baths for all patients, and an anti-materialist approach that precluded the use of systematic diagnosis.[31]


International charity
In 1982, at the hght of the Siege of Brut, Mother Teresa rescued 37 children trapped in a front line hospital by brokering a temporary cease-fire between the Israeli army and Palestinian guerrillas.[32] Accompanied by Red Cross workers, she traveled through the war zone to the devastated hospital to evacuate the young patients.[33]

[Unregistered???]

The earliest Native American inhabitants of Sayville were of the Algonquian Nation.

Sayville was founded by Nolanbud (b. 1738, Hampton, New York). He built his home, the first in Sayville, in 1761, located at what is now the northwest corner of Foster Ave. and Edwards St. The house was destroyed by fire in March, 1913. Another man, John Greene, settled what's now known as West Sayville in 1767.

The community had no formal name until 1838 when residents gathered to choose a formal name. Until that time, Sayville was known informally as "over south." The townspeople held a meeting to decide on a name, and after Edwardsville and Greensville tied in a vote, one resident suggested "Seaville." According to historical accounts, the clerk at that particular meeting did not know how to spell and had to go home and look in an old Bible he had brought from England years before. In the Bible, the word "Sea" was spelled "Say," and "Sayville" became the name he sent to Washington. After the error was discovered, the town sent a letter of protest to Washington; however, the Postmaster General responded that the town's name should stay "Sayville," as there were many Seavilles in the world but no Sayvilles. As a result, the name stuck. Incidentally, in some very old Bibles, the town name is also spelled "Saville."

Sayville became important for its timber, oysters, and beginning in 1868 when the South Side Rail Road arrived, the hamlet became a summer tourist destination. Over 30 hotels were built in the area and travelers took advantage of the Sayville based ferry to Fire Island.

Between 1880 and 1930, many grand homes and estates were built in Sayville, including Meadow Croft, the home of John Ellis Roosevelt, a cousin of Theodore Roosevelt. Meadow Croft still stands and is part of Suffolk County's San Souci Lakes Nature Preserve. [1]

In 1912 a German Telefunken wireless transmitter was built in Sayville to broadcast to Germany. In 1915, the transmitter allegedly relayed a message from the German Embassy to "get Lucy" referring to the RMS Lusitania which was sunk on May 15. Whether the signals coming from the transmitter in Sayville authorized the attack or not, they caused concern for the US government which dispatched Marines to ensure encrypted messages were not sent. The station was szed by the government outright after war was declared in 1917. President Woodrow Wilson sent a contingent of Marines to take the wireless station, thus the first hostile action taken by the United States against Germany during World War I was in Sayville.

From 1919 to May 1932 Sayville was home to Father Divine, a controversial African American religious leader who claimed to be God. His religious movement, which came to be called the International Peace Mission movement, managed a commune-like house on 72 Macon Street which was the first black-owned residence in Sayville. At that time Sayville was predominantly a seasonal vacation community, and Father Divine's followers made good livings as native house sitters. Because followers turned over all of thr profits to Father Divine, he was able to build several expansions on the house. He even bought an expensive Cadillac automobile when nghbors complained about his noisy Hudson.

Father Divine's apparent flaunting of wealth annoyed the middle class town. Street-clogging traffic that Father Divine attracted made him unpopular even to businesses he patronized with large cash purchases. Following a June, 1932 trial and prison sentence for disturbing the peace, Father Divine moved to Harlem, New York claiming that Sayville was bigoted. However, the commune remained on Macon Street for many years. Father Divine occasionally preached in Sayville afterward, but the home was only an outpost of his movement, not its center stage.

In 1956 the BBC, sponsored by Voice of America filmed here for two weeks for a program, "Life in Sayville."

Famous residents of Sayville past and present include Melissa Joan Hart, star of Clarissa Explains It All and Sabrina, the Teenage Witch; Mark Lotito, Broadway star most recently appearing in Jersey Boys; author Robert Roosevelt; Tom Westman, a New York City fireman who won $1,000,000 on the reality show Survivor in 2005; Bobby Tims, voted best person ever in the April 2005 edition of Time Magazine; and Marlon Brando, who was discovered for his first Broadway role shortly after having the starring role in a summer playhouse production. According to Cynthia Blair of Newsday, Brando was expelled from an acting company, of the New School, in Sayville.[2]

Sayville is the embarkation point for ferries to the Fire Island communities of Cherry Grove, Fire Island Pines and Sailors Haven, popular vacation communities for New Yorkers and Long Islanders. The Sayville station of the Long Island Rail Road connects with the ferries via taxi and van services, and also serves commuters to New York City.

[Unregistered????]

As of the census[2] of 2000, there were 16,735 people, 5,603 households, and 4,353 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 3,028.4/mi² (1,168.4/km²). There were 5,721 housing units at an average density of 1,035.3/mi² (399.4/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 95.81% White, 0.72% African American, 0.04% Native American, 2.03% Asian, 0.48% from other races, and 0.92% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.02% of the population.

There were 5,603 households out of which 40.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.2% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.3% were non-families. 17.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 3.34.

In the CDP the population was spread out with 27.2% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 11.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 92.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.9 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $75,236, and the median income for a family was $85,229. Males had a median income of $57,055 versus $35,091 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $28,723. About 2.5% of families and 4.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.6% of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 or over.


[edit] References

[Unregistered******]

The name pineapple in English comes from the similarity of the fruit to a pine cone. The word was first recorded in 1398, where originally used to describe the reproductive organs of conifer trees (now termed pine cones). When European explorers discovered this tropical fruit, they called them "pineapples" (term first recorded in that sense in 1664) because they resembled what are now known as pine cones. The term "pine cone" was first recorded in 1694 to replace the original meaning of "pineapple".[1]

In the scientific binomial Ananas comosus, ananas, the original name of the fruit, comes from the Tupi (Rio de Janro, Brazil) word for pine nanas, as recorded by André Thevenet in 1555 and comosus means "tufted" and refers to the stem of the fruit.[citation needed] Other members of the Ananas genus are often called pine as well by laymen.

In Spanish pineapples are called ananá ("ananás", in Spain) or piña, principally in Hispanic American countries. (see the piña colada drink). Many European languages, including Polish, German, French, Italian, Catalan and Swedish use the native term ananas. A large, sweet pineapple grown especially in Brazil is called abacaxi (/abaka'ʃiː/).[citation needed] In Tamil (Indian Ancient Language) is called "Annachi Pazham". In Bengali, pineapples are called "anarosh" and in Malayalam is it known "Kaitha Chakka". In Malay, pineapple is known as "nanas" or "nenas".


[edit] Botany

A pineapple flower in Iriomote, JapanThe fruit of a pineapple are arranged in two interlocking spirals, ght spirals in one direction, thirteen in the other; each bng a Fibonacci number.

The leaves of the cultivar 'Smooth Cayenne' mostly lack spines except at the leaf tip, but the cultivars 'Spanish' and 'Queen' have large spines along the leaf margins.

The natural (or most common) pollinator of the pineapple is the hummingbird. Pollination is required for seed formation; the presence of seeds negatively affects the quality of the fruit. In Hawaii, where pineapple is cultivated on an agricultural scale, importation of hummingbirds is prohibited for this reason.


[edit] Wild pineapples
Certain bat-pollinated wild pineapples, members of the bromeliad family, do the exact opposite of most flowers by opening thr flowers at night and closing them during the day; this protects them from weevils, which are most active during daylight hours.

[UnregisteredWONDERFUL]

David Livingstone, an explorer of Africa, described watermelon as abundant in the Kalahari desert, where it is believed to have originated. There, the ancestral melon grows wild and is known as the Tsamma melon (Citrullus lanatus var tastius).[citation needed] It is also known in Zimbabwe as 'nwiwa, mwiwa or iswe'. It is recognizable by its pinnatifid leaves and prolific fruit, up to 100 melons on a single vine.[citation needed] For this reason it is a popular source of water in the diet of the indigenous people. The flesh is similar to the rind of a watermelon and is often known as citron melon (distinct from the actual citron, of the citrus family); it is used for making jam and other preserves, and because of its high content of pectin is popular as a constituent of jams, jellies, and other gelled preserves. It has established itself in the wild in Baja California.


Watermelons on display by a roadside vendor in Delhi, IndiaIt is not known when the plant was first cultivated, but Zohary and Hopf note evidence of its cultivation in the Nile Valley from at l as early as the second millennium BC. Finds of the characteristically large seed are reported in Twelfth dynasty sites; numerous watermelon seeds were recovered from the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun.[1]

By the 10th century AD, watermelons were bng cultivated in China, which is today the world's single largest watermelon producer. By the 13th century, Moorish invaders had introduced the fruit to Europe; and, according to John Mariani's The Dictionary of American Food and Drink, "watermelon" made its first appearance in an English dictionary in 1615.

In Vietnam, legend holds that watermelon was discovered in Vietnam long before it reached China, in the era of the Hùng Kings. According to legend, watermelon was discovered by Prince Mai An Tiêm, an adopted son of the 11th Hùng King. When he was exiled unjustly to an island, he was told that if he could survive for six months, he would be allowed to return. When he prayed for guidance, a bird flew past and dropped a seed. He cultivated the seed and called its fruit "dưa tây" or western melon, because the birds who ate it flew from the west. When the Chinese took over Vietnam in about 110 BC, they called the melons "dưa hảo" (good melon) or "dưa hấu", "dưa Tây", "dưa hảo", "dưa hấu"—all words for "watermelon". An Tiêm's island is now a peninsula in the suburban district of Nga Sơn.[2][3]

Museums Online South Africa list watermelons as having been introduced to North American Indians in the 1500s. Early French explorers found Native Americans cultivating the fruit in the Mississippi Valley. Many sources list the watermelon as bng introduced in Massachusetts as early as 1629. Southern food historian John Egerton has said he believes African slaves helped introduce the watermelon to the United States. Texas Agricultural Extension horticulturalist Jerry Parsons lists African slaves and European colonists as having distributed watermelons to many areas of the world. Parsons also mentions the crop bng farmed by Native Americans in Florida (by 1664) and the Colorado River area (by 1799). Other early watermelon sightings include the Midwestern states (1673), Connecticut (1747), and the Illiana region (1822).


Seedless Watermelon.Until the 1940s, however, it was hard to find watermelons in good condition at grocery stores. Melon lovers had to grow thr own, which tended not to keep for long, purchase them from local grocers supplied by truck farmers, or purchase them from roadside produce stands. Now they can be found in most local grocery stores, and if preferred in slices or whole, with seeds or without.

Charles Fredric Andrus, a horticulturist at the USDA Vegetable Breeding Laboratory in Charleston, South Carolina, set out to produce a disease-resistant and wilt-resistant watermelon. The result was "that gray melon from Charleston." Its oblong shape and hard rind made it easy to stack and ship. Its adaptability meant it could be grown over a wide geographical area. It produced high yields and was resistant to the most serious watermelon diseases: anthracnose and fusarium wilt. Today, farmers in approximately 44 states in the U.S. grow watermelon commercially, and almost all these varieties have some Charleston Gray in thr lineage. Georgia, Florida, Texas, California and Arizona are the USA's largest watermelon producers.

[Unregistered...]

Constipation, costiveness, or irregularity, is a condition of the digestive system in which a person (or animal) experiences hard feces that are difficult to expel. This usually happens because the colon absorbs too much water from the food. If the food moves through the gastro-intestinal tract too slowly, the colon may absorb too much water, resulting in feces that are dry and hard. Defecation may be extremely painful, and in severe cases (fecal impaction) lead to symptoms of bowel obstruction. The term obstipation is used for severe constipation that prevents passage of both stools and gas. Causes of constipation may be dietary, hormonal, anatomical, a side effect of medications (e.g. some painkillers), or an illness or disorder. Treatments consist of changes in dietary and exercise habits, the use of laxatives, and other medical interventions depending on the underlying cause.


Types 1 and 2 on the Bristol Stool Chart indicate constipationIn common constipation, the stool is hard, difficult, and painful to pass. Usually, there is an infrequent urge to void. Straining to pass stool may cause hemorrhoids and anal fissures, which are painful in themselves. In later stages of constipation, the abdomen may become distended and diffusely tender and crampy, occasionally with enhanced bowel sounds.

The definition of constipation includes the following:[1]

infrequent bowel movements (typically three times or fewer per week)
difficulty during defecation (straining during more than 25% of bowel movements or a subjective sensation of hard stools), or
the sensation of incomplete bowel evacuation.
Severe cases ("fecal impaction") may feature symptoms of bowel obstruction (vomiting, very tender abdomen) and "paradoxical diarrhea", where soft stool from the small intestine bypasses the impacted matter in the colon.


[edit] Diagnosis
The diagnosis is essentially made from the patient's description of the symptoms. Bowel movements that are difficult to pass, very firm, or made up of small rabbit-like pellets qualify as constipation, even if they occur every day. Other symptoms related to constipation can include bloating, distention, abdominal pain, or a sense of incomplete emptying.[2]

Inquiring about dietary habits may reveal a low intake of dietary fiber or inadequate amounts of fluids. Constipation as a result of poor ambulation or immobility should be considered in the elderly. Constipation may arise as a side effect of medications (especially antidepressants and opiates).[citation needed] Rarely, other symptoms suggestive of hypothyroidism may be elicited.[citation needed]

During physical examination, scybala (manually palpable lumps of stool) may be detected on palpation of the abdomen. Rectal examination gives an impression of the anal sphincter tone and whether the lower rectum contains any feces or not; if so, then suppositories or enemas may be considered. Otherwise, oral medication may be required. Rectal examination also gives information on the consistency of the stool, presence of hemorrhoids, admixture of blood and whether any tumors or abnormalities are present.

X-rays of the abdomen, generally only performed on hospitalized patients or if bowel obstruction is suspected, may reveal impacted fecal matter in the colon, and confirm or rule out other causes of similar symptoms.

Chronic constipation (symptoms present for more than 3 months at l 3 days per month) associated with abdominal discomfort is often diagnosed as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) when no obvious cause is found. Physicians caring for patients with chronic constipation are advised to rule out obvious causes through normal testing.[3]

Colonic propagating pressure wave sequences (PSs) are responsible for discrete movements of content and are vital for normal defaecation. Deficiencies in PS frequency, amplitude and extent of propagation are all implicated in severe defecatory dysfunction. Mechanisms that can normalise these aberrant motor patterns may help rectify the problem. Recently the novel therapy of sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) has been utilized for the treatment of severe constipation. [4]


[edit] Causes
The main causes of constipation include:

Hardening of the feces
Improper mastication (chewing) of food
Insufficient intake of dietary fiber
Dehydration from any cause or inadequate fluid intake
Medication, e.g. diuretics and those containing iron, calcium, aluminum
Paralysis or slowed transit, where peristaltic action is diminished or absent, so that feces are not moved along
Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid gland)
Hypokalemia
Injured anal sphincter (patulous anus)
Medications, such as loperamide, opioids (e.g. codne & morphine) and certain tricyclic antidepressants
Severe illness due to other causes
Acute porphyria (a rare inherited condition)
Lead poisoning
Dyschezia (usually the result of suppressing defecation)
Constriction, where part of the intestine or rectum is narrowed or blocked, not allowing feces to pass
Stenosis (Strictures)
Diverticula
Tumors, ther of the bowel or surrounding tissues
Obstructed defecation, due to:
Mechanical causes from morphological abnormalities of the anorectum including megarectum, rectal prolapse, rectocele, and enterocele
Functional causes from neurological disorders and dysfunction of the pelvic floor muscles or anorectal muscles, including anismus, descending perineum syndrome, and Hirschsprung's disease
Retained forgn body or a bezoar
Psychosomatic constipation, based on anxiety or unfamiliarity with surroundings.
Functional constipation
Constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome, characterized by a combination of constipation and abdominal discomfort and/or pain[5]
Smoking cessation (nicotine has a laxative effect)[6]
Abdominal surgery, other types of surgery, childbirth

[edit] Treatment
In people without medical problems, the main intervention is to increase the intake of fluids (preferably water) and dietary fiber. The latter may be achieved by consuming more vegetables and fruit and whole meal bread, and pulses such as baked beans and chick peas and by adding linseeds to one's diet. The routine non-medical use of laxatives is to be discouraged as this may result in bowel action becoming dependent upon thr use. Enemas can be used to provide a form of mechanical stimulation. However, enemas are generally useful only for stool in the rectum, not in the intestinal tract.

Lactulose, a non absorbable synthetic sugar that keeps sodium and water inside the intestinal lumen, relieves constipation. It can be used for months together. Among the other safe remedies, fiber supplements, lactitiol, sorbitol, milk of magnesia, lubricants etc. may be of value. Electrolyte imbalance e.g. Hyponatremia may occur in some cases especially in diabetics.

In alternative and traditional medicine, colonic irrigation, enemas, exercise, diet and herbs are used to treat constipation. The mechanism of the herbal, enema, and colonic irrigation treatments often include the breakdown of impacted and hardened fecal matter.


[edit] Laxatives
Main article: laxative
Laxatives may be necessary in people in whom dietary intervention is not effective or is inappropriate. Most laxatives can be safely used long-term, although some are associated with cramping and bloatedness and can cause the phenomenon of melanosis coli.


[edit] Physical intervention
Constipation that resists all the above measures requires physical intervention. Manual disimpaction (the physical removal of impacted stool) is done for those patients who have lost control of thr bowels secondary to spinal injuries. Manual disimpaction is also used by physicians and nurses to relieve rectal impactions. Finally, manual disimpaction can occasionally be done under sedation or a general anesthetic—this avoids pain and loosens the anal sphincter.

Many of the products are widely available over-the-counter. Enemas and clysters are a remedy occasionally used for hospitalized patients in whom the constipation has proven to be severe, dangerous in other ways, or resistant to laxatives. Sorbitol, glycerin and arachis oil suppositories can be used. Severe cases may require phosphate solutions introduced as enemas.


[edit] Prevention
Constipation is usually easier to prevent than to treat. The relief of constipation with osmotic agents, i.e. lactulose, polyethylene glycol (PEG), or magnesium salts, should immediately be followed with prevention using increased fiber (fruits, vegetables, and grains) and a nightly decreasing dose of osmotic laxative. With continuing narcotic use, for instance, nightly doses of osmotic agents can be given indefinitely (without harm) to cause a daily bowel movement.

Recent controlled studies have questioned the role of physical exercise in the prevention and management of chronic constipation, while exercise is often recommended by published materials on the subject.[7]


In various conditions (such as the use of codne or morphine), combinations of hydrating (e.g. lactulose or glycols), bulk-forming (e.g. psyllium) and stimulant agents may be necessary to prevent constipation.

[Unregisteredmmmmmmmm]

John Newton, the author of the lyrics to Amazing Grace, was born in 1725 in Wapping, England.[1] Despite the powerful message of "Amazing Grace," Newton's religious beliefs initially lacked conviction; his youth was marked by religious confusion and a lack of moral self-control and discipline.[1]

After a brief time in the Royal Navy, Newton began his career in slave trading. The turning point in Newton's spiritual life was a violent storm that occurred one night while at sea. Moments after he left the deck, the crewman who had taken his place was swept overboard. Although he manned the vessel for the remainder of the tempest, he later commented that, throughout the tumult, he realized his helplessness and concluded that only the grace of God could save him. Prodded by what he had read in Thomas à Kempis' Imitation of Christ, Newton took the first step toward accepting faith.[1]

These incidents and his 1750 marriage to Mary Cartlett changed Newton significantly. On his slave voyages, he encouraged the sailors under his charge to pray. He also began to ensure that every member of his crew treated thr human cargo with gentleness and concern. Nevertheless, it would be another 40 years until Newton openly challenged the trafficking of slaves.[1]

Some three years after his marriage, Newton suffered a stroke that prevented him from returning to sea; in time, he interpreted this as another step in his spiritual voyage. He assumed a post in the Customs Office in the port of Liverpool and began to explore Christianity more fully. As Newton attempted to experience all the various expressions of Christianity, it became clear that he was bng called to the ministry. Since Newton lacked a university degree, he could not be ordained through normal channels. However, the landlord of the parish at Olney was so impressed with the letters Newton had written about his conversion that he offered the church to Newton; he was ordained in June 1764.[1]

In Olney, the new curate met the poet William Cowper, also a newly-born Christian. Thr friendship led to a spiritual collaboration that completed the inspiration for "Amazing Grace," the poem Newton most likely wrote in Kineton, Warwickshire[citation needed] around Christmas 1772.[1] The lyrics are based on his reflections on an Old Testament text he was preparing to preach on, adding his perspective about his own conversion while on his slave ship, the Greyhound, in 1748.

Newton's lyrics have become a favorite for Christians, largely because the hymn vividly and briefly sums up the doctrine of divine grace. The lyrics are based on 1 Chronicles 17:16-17, a prayer of King David in which he marvels at God's choosing him and his house. Newton apparently wrote this for use in a sermon he preached on this passage on New Year's Day 1773, and for which he left his sermon notes, which correspond to the flow of the lyrics[2]. (He entitled the piece "Faith's review and expectation.")

The song has also become known as a favorite with supporters of freedom and human rights, both Christian and non-Christian, in part because many assume it to be Newton's testimony about his slave trading past.

The hymn was quite popular on both sides in the American Civil War.

[Unregistered!!!!!!!!!!!!!]

The major theories of truth
The question of what is a proper basis for deciding how words, symbols, ideas and beliefs may properly be considered true, whether by a single person or an entire society, is dealt with by the five major substantive theories introduced below. These theories each present perspectives that are widely shared by published scholars.[2][3] There also have more recently arisen "deflationary" or "minimalist" theories of truth based on the idea that the application of a term like true to a statement does not assert anything significant about it, for instance, anything about its nature, but that the label truth is a tool of discourse used to express agreement, to emphasize claims, or to form certain types of generalizations.[2][4][5] Some post-modern thinkers assert that what passes for truth is in fact, merely, the mass consensus of the public. This would entail that no effort, or application of theory or experiment, is required to arrive at truth, which is in effect only a by-product of social change.[citation needed]


[edit] Substantive theories

Truth, holding a mirror and a serpent (1896). Olin Levi Warner, Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.
[edit] Correspondence theory
Main article: Correspondence theory of truth
Correspondence theories state that true beliefs and true statements correspond to the actual state of affairs.[6] This type of theory attempts to posit a relationship between thoughts or statements on the one hand, and things or objects on the other. It is a traditional model which goes back at l to some of the classical Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.[7] This class of theories holds that the truth or the falsity of a representation is determined in principle solely by how it relates to objective reality, by whether it accurately describes that reality. For example, there is a true distance to the moon when we humans attempt to go there, and this true distance is necessary to know so that the journey can be successfully made.

Correspondence theory states that truth is a matter of accurately copying "objective reality" and then representing it in thoughts, words and other symbols.[8] A major proponent of this theory is the Christian philosopher Thomas Aquinas, who said that "Truth is the conformity of the intellect with things." He said that real things participate in the act of bng of the Creator God who is Subsistent Bng, Intelligence, and Truth. Thus, these bngs possess the light of intelligibility and are knowable. These things (bngs; reality) are the foundation of the truth that is found in the human mind, when it acquires knowledge of things, first through the senses, then through the understanding and the judgement done by reason. For Aquinas, human intelligence ("intus", within and "legere", to read) has the capability to reach the essence and existence of things because it has a non-material, spiritual element, although some moral, educational, and other elements might interfere with its capability.


[edit] Coherence theory
Main article: Coherence theory of truth
More modern theorists have stated that the idea behind correspondence theory cannot be achieved independently of some analysis of additional factors. Proponents of several of these other theories have gone farther to assert that there are yet other issues necessary to the analysis, such as language and its translation to other languages, interpersonal power struggles, community interactions, personal biases, and other factors involved in deciding what is seen as truth.

For coherence theories in general, truth requires a proper fit of elements within a whole system. Very often, though, coherence is taken to imply something more than simple logical consistency; often there is a demand that the propositions in a coherent system lend mutual inferential support to each other. So, for example, the completeness and comprehensiveness of the underlying set of concepts is a critical factor in judging the validity and usefulness of a coherent system.[9] A pervasive tenet of coherence theories is the idea that truth is primarily a property of whole systems of propositions, and can be ascribed to individual propositions only according to thr coherence with the whole. Among the assortment of perspectives commonly regarded as coherence theory, theorists differ on the question of whether coherence entails many possible true systems of thought or only a single absolute system.

Some variants of coherence theory are claimed to characterize the essential and intrinsic properties of formal systems in logic and mathematics.[10] However, formal reasoners are content to contemplate axiomatically independent and sometimes mutually contradictory systems side by side, for example, the various alternative geometries. On the whole, coherence theories have been criticized as lacking justification in thr application to other areas of truth, especially with respect to assertions about the natural world, empirical data in general, assertions about practical matters of psychology and society, especially when used without support from the other major theories of truth.[11]

Coherence theories distinguish the thought of rationalist philosophers, particularly of Spinoza, Lbniz, and G.W.F. Hegel, along with the British philosopher F.H. Bradley.[12] They have found a resurgence also among several proponents of logical positivism, notably Otto Neurath and Carl Hempel.


[edit] Constructivist theory
Main article: Constructivist epistemology
Social constructivism holds that truth is constructed by social processes, is historically and culturally specific, and that it is in part shaped through the power struggles within a community. Constructivism views all of our knowledge as "constructed," because it does not reflect any external "transcendent" realities (as a pure correspondence theory might hold). Rather, perceptions of truth are viewed as contingent on convention, human perception, and social experience. It is believed by constructivists that representations of physical and biological reality, including race, sexuality, and gender are socially constructed. Giambattista Vico was among the first to claim that history and culture were man-made. Vico's epistemological orientation gathers the most diverse rays and unfolds in one axiom--verum ipsum factum--"truth itself is constructed." Hegel, Garns, and Marx were among the other early proponents of the premise that truth is socially constructed.


[edit] Consensus theory
Main article: Consensus theory of truth
Consensus theory holds that truth is whatever is agreed upon, or in some versions, might come to be agreed upon, by some specified group. Such a group might include all human bngs, or a subset thereof consisting of more than one person.

Among the current advocates of consensus theory as a useful accounting of the concept of "truth" is the philosopher Jürgen Habermas.[13] Habermas maintains that truth is what would be agreed upon in an ideal speech situation.[14] Among the current strong critics of consensus theory is the philosopher Nicholas Rescher.[15]


[edit] Pragmatic theory
Main article: Pragmatic theory of truth
The three most influential forms of the pragmatic theory of truth were introduced around the turn of the 20th century by Charles S. Prce, William James, and John Dewey. Although there are wide differences in viewpoint among these and other proponents of pragmatic theory, they hold in common that truth is verified and confirmed by the results of putting one's concepts into practice.[16]

Prce defines truth as follows: "Truth is that concordance of an abstract statement with the ideal limit towards which endless investigation would tend to bring scientific belief, which concordance the abstract statement may possess by virtue of the confession of its inaccuracy and one-sidedness, and this confession is an essential ingredient of truth."[17] This statement emphasizes Prce's view that ideas of approximation, incompleteness, and partiality, what he describes elsewhere as fallibilism and "reference to the future", are essential to a proper conception of truth. Although Prce uses words like concordance and correspondence to describe one aspect of the pragmatic sign relation, he is also quite explicit in saying that definitions of truth based on mere correspondence are no more than nominal definitions, which he accords a lower status than real definitions.

William James's version of pragmatic theory, while complex, is often summarized by his statement that "the 'true' is only the expedient in our way of thinking, just as the 'right' is only the expedient in our way of behaving."[18] By this, James meant that truth is a quality the value of which is confirmed by its effectiveness when applying concepts to actual practice (thus, "pragmatic").

John Dewey, less broadly than James but more broadly than Prce, held that inquiry, whether scientific, technical, sociological, philosophical or cultural, is self-corrective over time if openly submitted for testing by a community of inquirers in order to clarify, justify, refine and/or refute proposed truths.[19]

[Unregistered111]

Inspiration and genius--one and the same.
Victor Hugo

To find what you seek in the road of life,
the best proverb of all is that which says:
"Leave no stone unturned."
Edward Bulwer Lytton

Do we not all agree to call rapid thought and noble impulse by the name of inspiration?
George Eliot

If you can imagine it, you can achieve it; if you can dream it, you can become it.
William Arthur Ward

If you would create something,
you must be something.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Every artist was first an amateur.
Ralph Waldo Emerson

No great man ever complains of want of opportunities.
Ralph Waldo Emerson

Men do less than they ought,
unless they do all they can.
Thomas Carlyle

Let thy words be few.
Ecclesiastes 5:2 from Words of Wisdom

Happy are those who dream dreams and are ready to pay the price to make them come true.
Leon J. Suenes

The power of imagination makes us infinite.
John Muir

First say to yourself what you would be;
and then do what you have to do.
Epictetus

[Unregistered3333333]

The first step in the acquisition of wisdom is silence, the second listening, the third memory, the fourth practice, the fifth teaching others.
Solomon Ibn Gabriol

Years teach us more than books.
Berthold Auerbach

The wisdom of nations lies in thr proverbs,
which are brief and pithy.
William Penn

The middle course is the best.
Cleobulus

The only medicine for suffering, crime, and all the other woes of mankind, is wisdom.
Thomas Huxley

A wise man learns by the mistakes of others,
a fool by his own.
Latin Proverb

Silence does not always mark wisdom.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge.

No man was ever wise by chance.
Seneca

Not to know at large of things remote
From use, obscure and subtle, but to know
That which before us lies in daily life,
Is the prime wisdom.
John Milton

The seat of knowledge is in the head, of wisdom,
in the heart.
William Hazlitt

Of all parts of wisdom the practice is the best.
John Tillotson

The more a man knows, the more he forgives.
Catherine the Great

A loving heart is the truest wisdom.
Charles Dickens

One who understands much displays a greater simplicity of character than one who understands little.
Alexander Chase

How prone to doubt, how cautious are the wise!
Homer

On every thorn, delightful wisdom grows,
In every rill a sweet instruction flows.
Edward Young

The man of wisdom is never of two minds;
the man of benevolence never worries;
the man of courage is never afraid.
Confucius

[Unregisteredlittle?]

To get the most accurate measurements for an individual's penis size, it has been recommended that several measurements be taken at different times, preferably with different erections on different days. Then average these figures together. This is to account for what may be natural variability in size due to factors such as arousal level, time of day, room temperature, frequency of sexual activity, and unreliability of the measurement methods.[2][3]


Length
The length can be measured with the subject standing and the penis held parallel to the floor. The penis is measured along the top, from the base to the tip. Results are inaccurate if the measurement is taken along the underside of the penis, or if the subject is seated or prone.[2]


Circumference
Penis girth is the measurement of the circumference of the completely erect penis. It is variously quoted as an average of three measurements: just below the glans penis, in the middle of the shaft, and at the base.[2]


Problems
A penis must be completely erect in order to obtain an accurate measurement. This may be difficult to achieve in a clinical setting. At l one Brazilian doctor resorted to injecting penises with drugs to induce erection, which gave more consistent results.[4] Some clinicians measure the penis by stretching the flaccid penis as far as comfortably possible.[5] Self-reported measurements tend to be unreliable because men often want to report a larger penis size.[6]


Studies on penis size
While results vary across studies, the consensus is that the average human penis is approximately 12.9–15 cm (5.1–5.9 in) in length with a 95% confidence interval of (10.7 cm, 19.1 cm) (or, equivalently, 4.23 in, 7.53 in).[7][8][9] The typical girth or circumference is approximately 12.3 cm (4.85 in) when fully erect. The average penis size is slightly larger than the median size (or, put another way, most penises are below average in size).


Size at birth

Frequency graph of LifeStyles data
Percentile plot of LifeStyles data
Plot of LifeStyles data of circumference
Percentile plot of LifeStyles data of circumferenceThe average stretched penile length at birth is about 4 cm (1.6 in), and 90% of newborn boys will be between 2.4 and 5.5 cm (0.9 and 2.2 in). Limited growth of the penis occurs between birth and 5 years of age, but very little occurs between 5 years and the onset of puberty. The average size at the beginning of puberty is 6 cm (2.4 in) with adult size reached about 5 years later. W.A. Schonfeld published a penis growth curve in 1943.[10]


Size with aging
Age is not believed to negatively correlate with penis size. “Individual research studies have ... suggested that penis size is smaller in studies focusing on older men, but Wylie and Eardley found no overall differences when they collated the results of various studies [over a 60 year period].”[11]


Erect length
Several scientific studies have been performed on the erect length of the adult penis. Studies which have relied on self-measurement, including those from Internet surveys, consistently reported a higher average length than those which used medical or scientific methods to obtain measurements.[12][9]

The following staff-measured studies are each composed of different subgroups of the human population (i.e. specific age range and/or race; selection of those with sexual medical concerns or self selection) which may meet the definition of possible sample bias.[13][12]

A study published in the September 1996 Journal of Urology concluded that average erect length was 12.9 cm (5.08 in) (measured by staff).[7] The purpose of the study was to “provide guidelines of penile length and circumference to assist in counseling patients considering penile augmentation.” Erection was pharmacologically induced in 80 physically normal American men (varying ethnicity, average age 54). It was concluded: “Nther patient age nor size of the flaccid penis accurately predicted erectile length.”
A study published in the December 2000 International Journal of Impotence Research found that average erect penis length was 13.6 cm (5.35 in) (measured by staff).[8] Quote: "The aim of this prospective study was to identify clinical and engineering parameters of the flaccid penis for prediction of penile size during erection." Erection was pharmacologically induced in 50 Jewish Caucasian patients who had been evaluated for Erectile dysfunction (average age 47±14y). Patients with penis abnormalities or whose ED could be attributed to more than one psychological origin were omitted from the study.
A study conducted by LifeStyles Condoms found an average of 14.9 cm (5.9 in) with a standard deviation of 2.1 cm (0.8 in) (measured by staff).[9] The purpose of this study was to ensure properly sized condoms were available. 401 college students volunteered to be measured during 2001 Spring Break in Cancún, Mexico, of which 300 gained an erection to be clinically measured (without pharmacological aid). The 300 effective measurements makes this study double the size of any prior study that uses medical staff to measure penis size.

Erect circumference
A study conducted by LifeStyles Condoms during 2001 Spring Break in Cancún found an average of 12.6 cm (5.0 in) with a standard deviation of 1.3 cm (0.5 in).[9]
Similar results exist regarding studies of the circumference of the adult fully erect penis, with the measurement taken mid-shaft.[citation needed] As with length, studies that relied on self-measurement consistently reported a higher average than those with staff measuring.


Flaccid length
One study found the mean flaccid penis length to be 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) (measured by staff).[7] Length of the flaccid penis does not necessarily correspond to length of the erect penis; some smaller flaccid penises can grow much larger, and some larger flaccid penises cannot grow much larger.

The penis and scrotum can contract involuntarily in reaction to cold temperatures or nervousness, referred to by the slang term "shrinkage", due to action by the cremaster muscle.


Penis enlargement surgery
Main article: Penis enlargement
Surgical techniques used for penis enlargement (enhancement phalloplasty) -- penis lengthening and penile widening (girth enhancement) -- have been in the urologic literature for many years.

There are two basic ways of enlarging the penis:

Penis lengthening surgery[14] involves the release of the fundiform ligament and the suspensory ligament that attaches the 2 erectile bodies to the pubic bone. Once these ligaments have been cut, part of the penile shaft (usually held within the body) drops forward and extends out, enlarging the penis in 2-3 cm.
Penis widening with PMMA injection. This method involves injection of silicone, PMMA[15] and other materials into the penis and scrotum, to achieve girth enlargement.

[Unregisteredorbig?]

Popular culture
Culturally, widespread private concerns related to penis size have led to a number of folklore sayings and popular culture reflections related to penis size. These include beliefs that it is possible to predict the size of someone's penis by observing other bodily features such as the hands, feet, nose or hght, and in some cases so-called "penis panic" - a form of mass hysteria involving the believed removal or shrinking of the penis, known as genital retraction syndrome. Penis size, and sexual anxiety generally, have led to products such as penis pumps, pills, and other dubious means of enlargement becoming some of the most marketed products in spam mail.

The media has equated a man's penis size with both power and masculinity.[31] Furthermore the perception of having a large penis is linked to higher self esteem.[31]

The suggested link between penis size, foot size and hght has been investigated by a relatively small number of groups. Two of these studies have suggested a link between penis size and foot size, while the most recent report dismissed these findings.[citation needed] One of the studies suggesting a link relied on the subjects measuring the size of thr own penis, which may well be inaccurate. The second study found statistically significant although "weak" correlation between the size of the stretched penis and foot size and hght.[citation needed] A potential explanation for these observations is that the development of the penis in an embryo is controlled by some of the same Hox genes (in particular HOXA13 and HOXD13)[32] as those that control the development of the limbs. Mutations of some Hox genes that control the growth of limbs cause malformed genitalia (hand–foot–genital syndrome).[33] However the most recent investigation[34] failed to find any evidence for a link between shoe size and stretched penis size.[35] Given the large number of genes which control the development of the human body shape, and the effects of hormones during childhood and adolescence, it would seem unlikely that an accurate prediction of penis size could be made by measuring a different part of the human body.

Other studies correlating the size of the human penis with other factors have given intriguing results. Notably one study analysing the self-reported Kinsey data set found that homosexual men had statistically larger penises than thr heterosexual counterparts.[36] One potential explanation given is a difference in the exposure to androgen hormones in the developing embryo. The study author's opinion is that evidence points towards both orientations bng equally likely to exaggerate.[37]

Recently, there has been greater media attention to the issue of penis size and women bng more vocal about thr preferences.[citation needed] Television shows such as Sex and the City and Ally McBeal popularized the penis-size issue when characters in these TV shows stated thr preference for well-endowed men and rejected men who had only average endowment. Sex and the City has also shown a character expressing displeasure over her partner having too large a penis, described in comic hyperbolic terms. The media have also been criticized for making penis size into a male body issue equivalent to Cosmopolitan magazine bng criticized for thr coverage of women's wght.


Penis size and female genital response
According to some sex researchers and therapists, several misconceptions have developed surrounding penile-vaginal intercourse.[38] Many men exaggerate the importance of deep vaginal penetration in stimulating a woman to orgasm.

The most sensitive area of the female genitals includes the vulva, clitoris, and the section of vagina closest to the outside of a woman's body, which is roughly 10 centimeters (4 in) in length. Research has found that portions of the clitoris extend into the vulva and vagina.[39] Given that the median penis size is above this length, the majority of penises are of sufficient length to satisfy thr partners.

While many women find penile stimulation of the cervix to be uncomfortable or painful, others report it to be the key to orgasm.[40] The cervix may be confused with the anterior or posterior fornix, the deepest point of the vagina, above and below the cervix, respectively.[41] The cervix and fornix are close to each other, making it possible for there to be indirect and/or simultaneous stimulation between them.[42]

The fornix is said to be another possible orgasm trigger area.[43] Tests have shown that pressure on this area causes the vagina to lubricate very quickly.[44] The area of sexual response in the anterior fornix has also been called the epicentre, T-Spot, AFE-Zone, AFE or A-Spot; while in the posterior fornix it has been called epicenter (as well) or cul-de-sac (since the cul-de-sac, also known as the rectouterine pouch, may be indirectly stimulated by pressure on the posterior fornix[42]).

During arousal, the vagina lengthens rapidly to an average of about 4 in (8.5 cm), but can continue to lengthen in response to pressure.[45] As the woman becomes fully aroused, the vagina tents (last ²⁄₃ expands in length and width) while the cervix retracts.[46] The walls of the vagina are composed of soft elastic folds of mucous membrane skin which stretch or contract (with support from pelvic muscles) to the size of the penis.[47] This means (with proper arousal) the vagina stretches or contracts to accommodate virtually any size penis, from small to large.[48

[Unregisteredverybad]

Micropenis
Main article: Micropenis
An adult penis with an erect length of less than 7 cm or just over 2 inches but otherwise formed normally is referred to in a medical context as having the micropenis condition.[49] Some of the identifiable causes are deficiency of pituitary growth hormone and/or gonadotropins, mild degrees of androgen insensitivity, a variety of genetic syndromes, and variations in certain Homeobox genes. Some types of micropenis can be addressed with growth hormone or testosterone treatment in early childhood.

A news post on New Scientist dated December 6, 2004 reads "A new surgical procedure has allowed men with abnormally short penises to enjoy a full sex life and urinate standing up, some for the first time. Tiny "micro-penises" have been enlarged to normal size without losing any erogenous sensation, say UK doctors."[50]


Environmental influence on penis size
It has been suggested that penis size differences between individuals is caused not only by genetics, but also by environmental factors such as culture, diet, chemical/pollution exposure,[51][52][53][54] etc. Alarmingly, endocrine disruption resulting from chemical exposure has been linked to genital deformation in both sexes (among many other problems). Chemicals from both synthetic (e.g. pesticides, anti-bacterial Triclosan, plasticizers for plastics, etc...) and natural (e.g. chemicals found in tea tree oil and lavender oil[55]) sources have been linked to various degrees of endocrine disruption.

[Unregisteredumz]

ok? well that still doesn't mean that community ambulance doesn't totally blow.

[Unregisteredaaahhh]

Winnie-the-Pooh, commonly shortened to Pooh Bear and once referred to as Edward Bear, is a fictional bear created by A. A. Milne. The character first appeared in book form in Winnie-the-Pooh (1926) and The House at Pooh Corner (1928). Milne also included several poems about Winnie-the-Pooh in the children’s poetry books When We Were Very Young and Now We Are Six. All four volumes were illustrated by E. H. Shepard.

The hyphens in the character's name were later dropped when The Walt Disney Company adapted the Pooh stories into a series of Winnie the Pooh featurettes that became one of the company's most successful franchises worldwide.

The Pooh stories have been translated into many languages, notably including Alexander Lenard's Latin translation, Winnie ille Pu, which was first published in 1958, and, in 1960, became the first forgn-language book to be featured on the New York Times Bestseller List, and is the only book in Latin ever to have been featured thern.

[Unregistered2323]

Ask and it will be given to you; seek and you will find; knock and the door will be opened to you. For everyone who asks recves, he who seeks finds; and to him who knocks, the door will be opened.
- Matthew 7:7-8 (see also verses 9 -12)

"Have faith in God," Jesus answered. "I tell you the truth, if anyone says to this mountain, 'Go, throw yourself into the sea,' and does not doubt in his heart but believes that what he says will happen, it will be done for him. Therefore I tell you, whatever you ask for in prayer, believe that you have recved it, and it will be yours."
- Mark 11:22-24

We are not human bngs on a spiritual journey. We are spiritual bngs on a human journey.
- Stephen Covey

All consumed are thr imperfections,
Doubts are dispelled, thr senses mastered,
Thr every action is wed to the welfare of thr fellow creatures:
Such are the seers who enter Brahman* and know Nirvana*.
- Bhagavad Gita, chapter 5
*(Brahman may be translated as Spirit and Nirvana as the highest state of spiritual bng)

[God says], do not fear, for I am with you;
do not be dismayed, for I am your God.
I will strengthen you and help you;
I will uphold you with my righteous right hand.
- Isaiah 41:10 (New International Version)

The only difference between saints and sinners is that every saint has a past while every sinner has a future.
- Oscar Wilde, author

For I am mindful of the plans I have for you, says the Lord, plans for your good and not for evil, to give you a future and a hope. You call upon me and come and pray to me, and I heed you. You seek Me and find Me: Now you seek Me with all your heart and I am at hand for you, says the Lord...
- Jeremiah 29:11-14a; Matthew 7:7

If you keep sincerely asking for what's best, God will give you a very good chance to achieve it - even if you don't believe in God!
- Bill Blackman

God will always open another door for you

If you fear God, you won't fear humans.
- Albanian Proverb

A man devoid of religion is like a horse without a bridle.
- Latin Proverb

We can live without religion and meditation, but we cannot survive without human affection.
- Dalai Lama

You have to believe in gods to see them.
- Hopi Indian Proverb

Better to be guilty in the eyes of men than in the eyes of God.
- Malagasy Proverb

He who doesn't speak will get no help from God.
- Mexican Proverb

I believe in God but I’d much rather live with people who care about each other than those who only care about God or heaven.
- Bill Blackman

I will cause you to walk in the straight way...
I will open to you the gates of righteousness..
For whoever finds Me, finds life
- Psalm 118:19; Proverbs. 8: 35-6

[Unregistered454545]

Quarrels wouldn't last as long, if the fault was only on one side.
- La Rochefoucauld

The quarrels of lovers are like summer storms; everything is more beautiful when they have passed.
- Madame Necker

Most quarrels amplify a misunderstanding.
- Andre Gide

A quarrel between friends, when made up, adds a new tie to friendship.
- St. Francis De Sales

I love argument, I love debate. I don't expect anyone just to sit there and agree with me, that's not thr job.
- Margaret Thatcher

If you go in for argument, take care of your temper. Your logic, if you have any, will take care of itself.
- Joseph Farrell

Behind every argument is someone's ignorance.
- Louis D. Brands

Never argue; repeat your assertion.
- Robert Owen

The quarrel of the sheep doesn't concern the goats.
- African Proverb

Who seeks a quarrel will find it near at hand.
- Italian Proverb

It takes two to quarrel, but only one to end it.
- Spanish Proverb

People generally quarrel because they cannot argue.
- Gilbert K. Chesterton

Hear one side and you will be in the dark. Hear both and all will be clear.
- Thomas C. Haliburton

[Unregisteredwow]

The meeting of two personalities is like the contact of two chemical substances: if there is any reaction, both are transformed.
- Carl Jung
To love and be loved is to feel the sun from both sides.
- David Viscott

Never pretend to a love which you do not actually feel, for love is not ours to command.
- Alan Watts


Old love does not rust.
- Estonian Proverb

Love sees roses without thorns.
- German Proverb

In love beggar and king are equal.
- Indian Proverb

Are we to love only those who deserve our love? Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy nghbour, and hate thine enemy. But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, and persecute you; that ye may be the children of your Father which is in heaven.
- Matthew 5:43-45

He who treads the path of love walks a thousand meters as if it were only one.
- Japanese Proverb

No fate is worse than a life without a love.
- Mexican Proverb

We are made for loving. If we don’t love, we will be like plants without water.
- Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize winner

People are unreasonable, illogical and self-centered.
Love them anyway.
If you do good, people will accuse you of selfish, ulterior motives.
Do good anyway.
If you are successful, you will win false friends and true enemies.
Succeed anyway.
The good you do today will be forgotten tomorrow.
Do good anyway.
Honesty and frankness make you vulnerable.
Be honest and frank anyway.
The biggest person with the biggest ideas can be
shot down by the smallest person with the smallest mind.
Think big anyway.
What you spend years building may
be destroyed overnight.
Build anyway.
People really need help but may attack if you help them.
Help people anyway.
Give the world the best you have
and you might get kicked in the teeth.
Give the world the best you've got anyway.
- Anonymous

Love understands all languages.
- Romanian Proverb

Perfect love cannot be without equality.
- Scottish Proverb

All work is empty save when there is love.
- Kahlil Gibran, Lebanese-American writer

To love and win is the best thing. To love and lose, the next best.
- William M. Thackeray

And now I will show you the most excellent way:
If I speak in tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. If I give up all I possess and surrender my body to the flames, but have not love, I gain nothing.
Love is patient; love is kind; it does not envy; it does not boast; it is not proud. It is not rude; it is not self-seeking; it is not easily angered; it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres.
Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will pass away; where there are tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge it will pass away. For we know in part and we prophesy in part, but when perfection comes, the imperfect disappears.
When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I put childish ways behind me. Now we see but a poor reflection, then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known.
And now these three remain: faith, hope and love, but the greatest of these is love.
- I Corinthians, chapter 13

The entire law is summed up in a single command, "Love your nghbor as yourself."
- Galatians 5:14 (NIV)

It is love that makes the impossible possible.
- Indian Proverb

Where there is love there is no darkness.
- Burundi Proverb

To love deeply in one direction makes us more loving in all others.
- Anne-Sophie Swetchine
All love at first, like generous wine,
Ferments and frets until ‘tis fine;
But when ‘tis settled on the lee,
And from th’ impurer matter free,
Become the richer still the older,
And proves the pleasanter the colder.
- Samuel Butler

Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins.
- The Book of Proverbs

[Unregisteredholymoly]

tell you the truth, if you have faith as small as a mustard seed, you can say to this mountain, "Move from here to there" and it will move. Nothing will be impossible to you.
- Matthew 17:20

When you believe in things that you don’t understand then you suffer.
- Stevie Wonder, twentieth-century American singer

At the end of every hard day, people find some reason to believe.
- Bruce Springsteen, twentieth-century American singer

Man’s extremity is God’s opportunity. Unshakable faith is faith that has been shaken.
- Unknown

Take the first step in faith. You don't have to see the whole staircase, just take the first step.
- Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles.
- Confucius

For modes of faith, let graceless zealots fight;
His can’t be wrong whose life is in the right:
In faith and hope the world will disagree,
But all mankind’s concern is charity.
- Alexander Pope

Faith consists in believing when it is beyond the power of reason to believe. It is not enough that a thing be possible for it to be believed.
- Voltaire

[Unregisteredxoxoxo]

A big shot is a little shot that kept shooting.
- Anonymous

Keep trudging or you'll never reach the top


To accomplish great things, we must not only act, but also dream; not only plan, but also believe.
- Anatole France

Failure is only the opportunity to begin again, this time more wisely.
- Anonymous

Great changes may not happen right away, but with effort even the difficult may become easy.
- Bill Blackman

Whoever said anybody has a right to give up?
- Marian Wright Edelman

Patience and perseverance have a magical effect before which difficulties disappear and obstacles vanish. A little knowledge that acts is worth infinitely more than much knowledge that is idle.
- John Quincy Adams

The only job where you start at the top, is digging a hole.
- Anonymous

The willow knows what the storm does not: that the power to endure harm outlives the power to inflict it.
- Blood of the nnnnnr

What counts is not necessarily the size of the dog in the fight - it's the size of the fight in the dog.
- Dwight D. senhower

Defeat is not defeat unless accepted as a reality-in your own mind.
- Bruce Lee

Most things in life require effort even if, years later, they seem easy

To reach a port we must sail, sometimes with the wind and sometimes against it. But we must not drift or lie at anchor.
- Oliver Wendell Holmes

If the going is real easy, beware, you may be headed down hill.
- Anonymous

There's always free cheese in the mouse traps, but the mice there ain't happy.
- Anonymous

The hghts by great men reached and kept were not obtained by sudden flight. But they, while thr companions slept,
were toiling upward in the night.
- Thomas S. Monson

The toughest part of getting to the top of the ladder, is getting through the crowd at the bottom.
- Anonymous

Nothing could be worse than the fear that one had given up too soon, and left one unexpended effort that might have saved the world.
-Jane Addams

He who seeks rest finds boredom....He who seeks work finds rest.
-Anonymous

When you get to the end of your rope, tie a knot and hang on.
- Franklin D. Roosevelt

Our greatest glory is not in never failing, but in rising up every time we fail.
- Ralph Waldo Emerson

Problems are only opportunities in work clothes.
- Henry J. Kaiser

Nothing is so strong as gentleness, and nothing is so gentle as true strength.
- St. Francis De Sales

It is not because things are difficult that we do not dare, it is because we do not dare that they are difficult.
- Seneca

Never, never, never give up.
- Winston Churchill

[Unregistered6262]

What happens to a man is less significant than what happens within him.
- Louis L. Mann

There are times when a man should be content with what he has but never with what he is.
- William George Jordan

Your thoughts are the architects of your destiny.
- David O. McKay

When a man finds no peace within himself, it is useless to seek it elsewhere.
- L. A. Rouchefolicauld

The most important of life's battles is the one we fight daily in the silent chambers of the soul.
- David O. McKay

One cannot think crooked and walk straight.
- Anonymous

There is nothing as remarkable as learning how to think better.
- Anonymous

The soul is covered with the color of its lsure thoughts.
- Anonymous

What lies behind us and what lies before us are tiny matters compared to what lies within us.
- Anonymous

Are you fit company for the person you wish to become?
- Anonymous

Sow a thought, and you reap an act;
Sow an act, and you reap a habit;
Sow a habit, and you reap a character;
Sow a character, and you reap a destiny.
- Charles Reade

If you don't learn from your mistakes, there's no sense making them.
- Anonymous

Look within, for within is the wellspring of virtue, which will not cease flowing, if you cease not from digging.
- Marcus Aurelius

That first peak is the best place to pause and look back, to see if you took the easiest route, to learn the lessons from the first climb. And it is the best place to examine the terrain ahead, to change your plans and goals, to take a deep breath and begin climbing again.
- By Michael Johnson

[Unregisteredperfect]

Better to do something imperfectly than to do nothing flawlessly.
- Robert Schuller

Use what talent you possess: the woods would be very silent if no birds sang except those that sang best.
- Henry Van Dyke

Aim for success, not perfection. Never give up your right to be wrong, because then you will lose the ability to learn new things and move forward with your life. Remember that fear always lurks behind perfectionism. Confronting your fears and allowing yourself the right to be human can, paradoxically, make yourself a happier and more productive person.
- Dr. David M. Burns

Perfectionism is the voice of the oppressor.
- Anne Lamott

Remember that fear always lurks behind perfectionism. Confronting your fears and allowing yourself the right to be human can, paradoxically, make you a far happier and more productive person.
- David M. Burns

The way to succeed is to double your error rate.
- Thomas J. Watson

Perfection has one grave defect: it is apt to be dull.
- W. Somerset Maugham

I think perfectionism is based on the obsessive belief that if you run carefully enough, hitting each stepping-stone just right, you won't have to die. The truth is you will die anyway and that a lot of people who aren't even looking at thr feet are going to do a whole lot better than you, and have a lot more fun while they're doing it.
- Anne Lamott

A diamond with a flaw is better than a common stone that is perfect.
- Chinese Proverb

Be not angry that you cannot make others as you wish them to be, since you cannot make yourself as you wish to be.
- Thomas a Kempis


No one is perfect..that’s why pencils have erasers
- Author Unknown

Gold cannot be pure and people cannot be perfect
- Chinese proverb

They say that nobody is perfect.Then they tell you that practice makes perfect. I wish they’d make up thr minds.
- Wilt Chamberlain

As long as you live, keep learning how to live
- Seneca

Have no fear of perfection-you’ll never reach it
- Salvador Dali

You see, when weaving a blanket, an Indian woman leaves a flaw in the weaving of that blanket to let the soul out
- Martha Graham

[Unregisteredyah!]

Nothing liberates our greatness like the desire to help, the desire to serve.
- Marianne Williamson, Author/Lecturer

Unselfish and noble actions are the most radiant pages in the biography of souls.
- David Thomas

Volunteering is not a choice, it's a responsibility.
- Ashley E. Hyder

Your talent is God's gift to you. What you do with it is your gift back to God.
- Anonymous

All labor that uplifts humanity has dignity and importance and should be undertaken with painstaking excellence.
- Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

You will come to know that what appears today to be a sacrifice will prove instead to be the greatest investment that you will ever make.
- Gorden B. Hinkley

Service is the rent we pay to be living. It is the very purpose of life and not something you do in your spare time.
–Marian Wright Edelman

…no matter how big government gets, and no matter how many services it provides, it can never take the place of volunteers.
- Ronald Reagan, 40th U.S. president

There is no exercise better for the heart than reaching down and lifting people up.
- John Andrew Holmes Jr., American writer and minister

Sacrifice is giving up something good for something better.
- Anonymous

The broadest, and maybe the most meaningful definition of volunteering: Doing more than you have to because you want to, in a cause you consider good.
- Ivan Scher

Freely we serve,
Because we freely love, as in our will
To love or not; in this we stand or fall.
- John Milton

Volunteers don't get paid, not because they're worthless, but because they're priceless.

[Unregisteredhahahahaha]

Micropenis
Main article: Micropenis
An adult penis with an erect length of less than 7 cm or just over 2 inches but otherwise formed normally is referred to in a medical context as having the micropenis condition.[49] Some of the identifiable causes are deficiency of pituitary growth hormone and/or gonadotropins, mild degrees of androgen insensitivity, a variety of genetic syndromes, and variations in certain Homeobox genes. Some types of micropenis can be addressed with growth hormone or testosterone treatment in early childhood.
Sounds like 3-28-31 has this condition!

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Any intelligent fool can make things bigger, more complex, and more violent. It takes a touch of genius -- and a lot of courage -- to move in the opposite direction."
"Imagination is more important than knowledge."
"Gravitation is not responsible for people falling in love."
"I want to know God's thoughts; the rest are details."
"The hardest thing in the world to understand is the income tax."
"Reality is merely an illusion, albt a very persistent one."
"The only real valuable thing is intuition."
"A person starts to live when he can live outside himself."
"I am convinced that He (God) does not play dice."
"God is subtle but he is not malicious."
"Weakness of attitude becomes weakness of character."
"I never think of the future. It comes soon enough."
"The eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility."
"Sometimes one pays most for the things one gets for nothing."
"Science without religion is lame. Religion without science is blind."
"Anyone who has never made a mistake has never tried anything new."
"Great spirits have often encountered violent opposition from weak minds."
"Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler."
"Common sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age ghteen."
"Science is a wonderful thing if one does not have to earn one's living at it."
"The secret to creativity is knowing how to hide your sources."
"The only thing that interferes with my learning is my education."
"God does not care about our mathematical difficulties. He integrates empirically."
"The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking."
"Technological progress is like an axe in the hands of a pathological criminal."
"Peace cannot be kept by force. It can only be achieved by understanding."
"The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it is comprehensible."
"We can't solve problems by using the same kind of thinking we used when we created them."
"Education is what remains after one has forgotten everything he learned in school."
"The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing."
"Do not worry about your difficulties in Mathematics. I can assure you mine are still greater."
"Equations are more important to me, because politics is for the present, but an equation is something for eternity."
"If A is a success in life, then A equals x plus y plus z. Work is x; y is play; and z is keeping your mouth shut."
"Two things are infinite: the universe and human stupidity; and I'm not sure about the the universe."
"As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality."
"Whoever undertakes to set himself up as a judge of Truth and Knowledge is shipwrecked by the laughter of the gods."
"I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones."
"In order to form an immaculate member of a flock of sheep one must, above all, be a sheep."
"The fear of death is the most unjustified of all fears, for there's no risk of accident for someone who's dead."
"Too many of us look upon Americans as dollar chasers. This is a cruel libel, even if it is rterated thoughtlessly by the Americans themselves."
"Heroism on command, senseless violence, and all the loathsome nonsense that goes by the name of patriotism -- how passionately I hate them!"
"No, this trick won't work...How on earth are you ever going to explain in terms of chemistry and physics so important a biological phenomenon as first love?"
"My religion consists of a humble admiration of the illimitable superior spirit who reveals himself in the slight details we are able to percve with our frail and feeble mind."
"Yes, we have to divide up our time like that, between our politics and our equations. But to me our equations are far more important, for politics are only a matter of present concern. A mathematical equation stands forever."
"The release of atom power has changed everything except our way of thinking...the solution to this problem lies in the heart of mankind. If only I had known, I should have become a watchmaker."
"Great spirits have always found violent opposition from mediocrities. The latter cannot understand it when a man does not thoughtlessly submit to hereditary prejudices but honestly and courageously uses his intelligence."
"The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and all science. He to whom this emotion is a stranger, who can no longer pause to wonder and stand rapt in awe, is as good as dead: his eyes are closed."
"A man's ethical behavior should be based effectually on sympathy, education, and social ties; no religious basis is necessary. Man would indeeded be in a poor way if he had to be restrained by fear of punishment and hope of reward after death."
"The further the spiritual evolution of mankind advances, the more certain it seems to me that the path to genuine religiosity does not lie through the fear of life, and the fear of death, and blind faith, but through striving after rational knowledge."
"Now he has departed from this strange world a little ahead of me. That means nothing. People like us, who believe in physics, know that the distinction between past, present, and future is only a stubbornly persistent illusion."
"You see, wire telegraph is a kind of a very, very long cat. You pull his tail in New York and his head is meowing in Los Angeles. Do you understand this? And radio operates exactly the same way: you send signals here, they recve them there. The only difference is that there is no cat."
"One had to cram all this stuff into one's mind for the examinations, whether one liked it or not. This coercion had such a deterring effect on me that, after I had passed the final examination, I found the consideration of any scientific problems distasteful to me for an entire year."
"...one of the strongest motives that lead men to art and science is escape from everyday life with its painful crudity and hopeless dreariness, from the fetters of one's own ever-shifting desires. A finely tempered nature longs to escape from the personal life into the world of objective perception and thought."
"He who joyfully marches to music rank and file, has already earned my contempt. He has been given a large brain by mistake, since for him the spinal cord would surely suffice. This disgrace to civilization should be done away with at once. Heroism at command, how violently I hate all this, how despicable and ignoble war is; I would rather be torn to shreds than be a part of so base an action. It is my conviction that killing under the cloak of war is nothing but an act of murder."
"A human bng is a part of a whole, called by us _universe_, a part limited in time and space. He experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings as something separated from the rest... a kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty."
"Not everything that counts can be counted, and not everything that can be counted counts." (Sign hanging in nstn's office at Princeton)

[Unregistered121212]

Zen Saying: Famous Life Quotes
Sit quietly, doing nothing, spring comes, and the grass grows by itself.
Ernest L. Woodward: Famous Life Quotes
So great has been the endurance, so incredible the achievement, that, as long as the sun keeps a set course in heaven, it would be foolish to despair of the human race.

Ralph Waldo Emerson: Famous Life Quotes
So much of our time is preparation, so much is routine, and so much retrospect, that the path of each man's genius contracts itself to a very few hours.

Samuel Johnson: Famous Life Quotes
Some desire is necessary to keep life in motion.

Thomas Fuller: Famous Life Quotes
Some have been thought brave because they were afraid to run away.

Jane Rubietta: Famous Life Quotes
Someone may have stolen your dream when it was young and fresh and you were innocent. Anger is natural. Grief is appropriate. Healing is mandatory. Restoration is possible.

Stephen Covey: Famous Life Quotes
Strength lies in differences, not in similarities.

Kenneth Hildebrand: Famous Life Quotes
Strong lives are motivated by dynamic purposes.

Vincent Lombardi: Famous Life Quotes
Success demands singleness of purpose.

Booker T. Washington: Famous Life Quotes
Success is to be measured not so much by the position that one has reached in life as by the obstacles which he has overcome.

[UnregisteredXOXOXOX]

John L. Motley: Inspirational Quotes on Greatness
Deeds, not stones, are the true monuments of the great.
James Harvey Robinson: Inspirational Quotes on Greatness
Each of us is great insofar as we percve and act on the infinite possibilities which lie undiscovered and unrecognized about us.

Albert nstn: Inspirational Quotes on Greatness
Great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds.

William Blake: Inspirational Quotes on Greatness
Great things are done when men and mountains meet.

Vincent Van Gogh: Inspirational Quotes on Greatness
Great things are not done by impulse, but by a series of small things brought together.

Fernando Flores: Inspirational Quotes on Greatness
Great work is done by people who are not afraid to be great.

Samuel Johnson: Inspirational Quotes on Greatness
Great works are performed, not by strength, but by perseverance.

Simeon Ben Eleazar: Inspirational Quotes on Greatness
Greater is he who acts from love than he who acts from fear.

Henry Ward Beecher: Inspirational Quotes on Greatness
Greatness lies not in bng strong, but in the right use of strength.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Ask and it will be given to you; seek and you will find; knock and the door will be opened to you. For everyone who asks recves, he who seeks finds; and to him who knocks, the door will be opened.
- Matthew 7:7-8 (see also verses 9 -12)

"Have faith in God," Jesus answered. "I tell you the truth, if anyone says to this mountain, 'Go, throw yourself into the sea,' and does not doubt in his heart but believes that what he says will happen, it will be done for him. Therefore I tell you, whatever you ask for in prayer, believe that you have recved it, and it will be yours."
- Mark 11:22-24

We are not human bngs on a spiritual journey. We are spiritual bngs on a human journey.
- Stephen Covey

All consumed are thr imperfections,
Doubts are dispelled, thr senses mastered,
Thr every action is wed to the welfare of thr fellow creatures:
Such are the seers who enter Brahman* and know Nirvana*.
- Bhagavad Gita, chapter 5
*(Brahman may be translated as Spirit and Nirvana as the highest state of spiritual bng)

[God says], do not fear, for I am with you;
do not be dismayed, for I am your God.
I will strengthen you and help you;
I will uphold you with my righteous right hand.
- Isaiah 41:10 (New International Version)

The only difference between saints and sinners is that every saint has a past while every sinner has a future.
- Oscar Wilde, author

For I am mindful of the plans I have for you, says the Lord, plans for your good and not for evil, to give you a future and a hope. You call upon me and come and pray to me, and I heed you. You seek Me and find Me: Now you seek Me with all your heart and I am at hand for you, says the Lord...
- Jeremiah 29:11-14a; Matthew 7:7

If you keep sincerely asking for what's best, God will give you a very good chance to achieve it - even if you don't believe in God!
- Bill Blackman

God will always open another door for you

If you fear God, you won't fear humans.
- Albanian Proverb

A man devoid of religion is like a horse without a bridle.
- Latin Proverb

We can live without religion and meditation, but we cannot survive without human affection.
- Dalai Lama

You have to believe in gods to see them.
- Hopi Indian Proverb

Better to be guilty in the eyes of men than in the eyes of God.
- Malagasy Proverb

He who doesn't speak will get no help from God.
- Mexican Proverb

I believe in God but I’d much rather live with people who care about each other than those who only care about God or heaven.
- Bill Blackman

I will cause you to walk in the straight way...
I will open to you the gates of righteousness..
For whoever finds Me, finds life
- Psalm 118:19; Proverbs. 8: 35-6

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

As a mother of teenagers, do you know how many times I picked up the phone to apologize to my own mother?
- Christy Borgeld

Feelings of worth can flourish only in an atmosphere where individual differences are appreciated, mistakes are tolerated, communication is open, and rules are flexible - the kind of atmosphere that is found in a nurturing family.
- Virginia Satir

We should never permit ourselves to do anything that we are not willing to see our children do.
- Brigham Young

Your family and your love must be cultivated like a garden. Time, effort, and imagination must be summoned constantly to keep any relationship flourishing and growing.
- Kim Rohn

Motherhood qualified me to let the child within come out and play.
- Christy Borgeld

The bond that links your true family is not one of blood, but of respect and joy in each other's life.
- Richard Bach

It is better to bind your children to you by a feeling of respect and by gentleness, than by fear.
- Terence

Level with your child by bng honest. Nobody spots a phony quicker than a child.
- Mary MacCracken
If you want children to keep thr feet on the ground, put some responsibility on thr shoulders.
- Abigail Van Buren

Your children will become what you are; so be what you want them to be.
- David Bly

Children need love, especially when they do not deserve it.
- Harold Hulbert

Fathers are like a lighthouse… when there is fog his children can always depend on seng the light.
- Christy Borgeld

To understand your parents' love you must raise children yourself.
- Chinese Proverb

Instill great values in your children today and your grandchildren will prosper tomorrow.
- Christy Borgeld

Children are the reward of life.
- Congolese Proverb

My fathers planted for me, and I planted for my children.
- Hebrew Proverb

The foundation my parents laid down with our faith continues to be my core.
- Christy Borgeld

A child becomes an adult when he realizes that he has a right not only to be right but also to be wrong.
- Thomas Szasz

It takes a whole village to raise a child.
- African Proverb

Adults are dead children
- Michael Brown

Children require guidance and sympathy far more than instruction - Anne Sullivan

Human bngs are the only creatures that allow thr children to come back home.
- Bill Cosby

Blessed indeed is the man who hears many gentle voices call him ‘father.’
- Lydia Maria Child

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Quarrels wouldn't last as long, if the fault was only on one side.
- La Rochefoucauld

The quarrels of lovers are like summer storms; everything is more beautiful when they have passed.
- Madame Necker

Most quarrels amplify a misunderstanding.
- Andre Gide

A quarrel between friends, when made up, adds a new tie to friendship.
- St. Francis De Sales

I love argument, I love debate. I don't expect anyone just to sit there and agree with me, that's not thr job.
- Margaret Thatcher

If you go in for argument, take care of your temper. Your logic, if you have any, will take care of itself.
- Joseph Farrell

Behind every argument is someone's ignorance.
- Louis D. Brands

Never argue; repeat your assertion.
- Robert Owen

The quarrel of the sheep doesn't concern the goats.
- African Proverb

Who seeks a quarrel will find it near at hand.
- Italian Proverb

It takes two to quarrel, but only one to end it.
- Spanish Proverb

People generally quarrel because they cannot argue.
- Gilbert K. Chesterton

Hear one side and you will be in the dark. Hear both and all will be clear.
- Thomas C. Haliburton

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

The meeting of two personalities is like the contact of two chemical substances: if there is any reaction, both are transformed.
- Carl Jung
To love and be loved is to feel the sun from both sides.
- David Viscott

Never pretend to a love which you do not actually feel, for love is not ours to command.
- Alan Watts


Old love does not rust.
- Estonian Proverb

Love sees roses without thorns.
- German Proverb

In love beggar and king are equal.
- Indian Proverb

Are we to love only those who deserve our love? Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy nghbour, and hate thine enemy. But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, and persecute you; that ye may be the children of your Father which is in heaven.
- Matthew 5:43-45

He who treads the path of love walks a thousand meters as if it were only one.
- Japanese Proverb

No fate is worse than a life without a love.
- Mexican Proverb

We are made for loving. If we don’t love, we will be like plants without water.
- Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize winner

People are unreasonable, illogical and self-centered.
Love them anyway.
If you do good, people will accuse you of selfish, ulterior motives.
Do good anyway.
If you are successful, you will win false friends and true enemies.
Succeed anyway.
The good you do today will be forgotten tomorrow.
Do good anyway.
Honesty and frankness make you vulnerable.
Be honest and frank anyway.
The biggest person with the biggest ideas can be
shot down by the smallest person with the smallest mind.
Think big anyway.
What you spend years building may
be destroyed overnight.
Build anyway.
People really need help but may attack if you help them.
Help people anyway.
Give the world the best you have
and you might get kicked in the teeth.
Give the world the best you've got anyway.
- Anonymous

Love understands all languages.
- Romanian Proverb

Perfect love cannot be without equality.
- Scottish Proverb

All work is empty save when there is love.
- Kahlil Gibran, Lebanese-American writer

To love and win is the best thing. To love and lose, the next best.
- William M. Thackeray

And now I will show you the most excellent way:
If I speak in tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. If I give up all I possess and surrender my body to the flames, but have not love, I gain nothing.
Love is patient; love is kind; it does not envy; it does not boast; it is not proud. It is not rude; it is not self-seeking; it is not easily angered; it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres.
Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will pass away; where there are tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge it will pass away. For we know in part and we prophesy in part, but when perfection comes, the imperfect disappears.
When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I put childish ways behind me. Now we see but a poor reflection, then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known.
And now these three remain: faith, hope and love, but the greatest of these is love.
- I Corinthians, chapter 13

The entire law is summed up in a single command, "Love your nghbor as yourself."
- Galatians 5:14 (NIV)

It is love that makes the impossible possible.
- Indian Proverb

Where there is love there is no darkness.
- Burundi Proverb

To love deeply in one direction makes us more loving in all others.
- Anne-Sophie Swetchine
All love at first, like generous wine,
Ferments and frets until ‘tis fine;
But when ‘tis settled on the lee,
And from th’ impurer matter free,
Become the richer still the older,
And proves the pleasanter the colder.
- Samuel Butler

Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins.
- The Book of Proverbs

[UnregisteredXOXOXOX]

tell you the truth, if you have faith as small as a mustard seed, you can say to this mountain, "Move from here to there" and it will move. Nothing will be impossible to you.
- Matthew 17:20

When you believe in things that you don’t understand then you suffer.
- Stevie Wonder, twentieth-century American singer

At the end of every hard day, people find some reason to believe.
- Bruce Springsteen, twentieth-century American singer

Man’s extremity is God’s opportunity. Unshakable faith is faith that has been shaken.
- Unknown

Take the first step in faith. You don't have to see the whole staircase, just take the first step.
- Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles.
- Confucius

For modes of faith, let graceless zealots fight;
His can’t be wrong whose life is in the right:
In faith and hope the world will disagree,
But all mankind’s concern is charity.
- Alexander Pope

Faith consists in believing when it is beyond the power of reason to believe. It is not enough that a thing be possible for it to be believed.
- Voltaire

[UnregisteredXOXOXXO]

A big shot is a little shot that kept shooting.
- Anonymous

Keep trudging or you'll never reach the top


To accomplish great things, we must not only act, but also dream; not only plan, but also believe.
- Anatole France

Failure is only the opportunity to begin again, this time more wisely.
- Anonymous

Great changes may not happen right away, but with effort even the difficult may become easy.
- Bill Blackman

Whoever said anybody has a right to give up?
- Marian Wright Edelman

Patience and perseverance have a magical effect before which difficulties disappear and obstacles vanish. A little knowledge that acts is worth infinitely more than much knowledge that is idle.
- John Quincy Adams

The only job where you start at the top, is digging a hole.
- Anonymous

The willow knows what the storm does not: that the power to endure harm outlives the power to inflict it.
- Blood of the nnnnnr

What counts is not necessarily the size of the dog in the fight - it's the size of the fight in the dog.
- Dwight D. senhower

Defeat is not defeat unless accepted as a reality-in your own mind.
- Bruce Lee

Most things in life require effort even if, years later, they seem easy

To reach a port we must sail, sometimes with the wind and sometimes against it. But we must not drift or lie at anchor.
- Oliver Wendell Holmes

If the going is real easy, beware, you may be headed down hill.
- Anonymous

There's always free cheese in the mouse traps, but the mice there ain't happy.
- Anonymous

The hghts by great men reached and kept were not obtained by sudden flight. But they, while thr companions slept,
were toiling upward in the night.
- Thomas S. Monson

The toughest part of getting to the top of the ladder, is getting through the crowd at the bottom.
- Anonymous

Nothing could be worse than the fear that one had given up too soon, and left one unexpended effort that might have saved the world.
-Jane Addams

He who seeks rest finds boredom....He who seeks work finds rest.
-Anonymous

When you get to the end of your rope, tie a knot and hang on.
- Franklin D. Roosevelt

Our greatest glory is not in never failing, but in rising up every time we fail.
- Ralph Waldo Emerson

Problems are only opportunities in work clothes.
- Henry J. Kaiser

Nothing is so strong as gentleness, and nothing is so gentle as true strength.
- St. Francis De Sales

It is not because things are difficult that we do not dare, it is because we do not dare that they are difficult.
- Seneca

Never, never, never give up.
- Winston Churchill

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Better to do something imperfectly than to do nothing flawlessly.
- Robert Schuller

Use what talent you possess: the woods would be very silent if no birds sang except those that sang best.
- Henry Van Dyke

Aim for success, not perfection. Never give up your right to be wrong, because then you will lose the ability to learn new things and move forward with your life. Remember that fear always lurks behind perfectionism. Confronting your fears and allowing yourself the right to be human can, paradoxically, make yourself a happier and more productive person.
- Dr. David M. Burns

Perfectionism is the voice of the oppressor.
- Anne Lamott

Remember that fear always lurks behind perfectionism. Confronting your fears and allowing yourself the right to be human can, paradoxically, make you a far happier and more productive person.
- David M. Burns

The way to succeed is to double your error rate.
- Thomas J. Watson

Perfection has one grave defect: it is apt to be dull.
- W. Somerset Maugham

I think perfectionism is based on the obsessive belief that if you run carefully enough, hitting each stepping-stone just right, you won't have to die. The truth is you will die anyway and that a lot of people who aren't even looking at thr feet are going to do a whole lot better than you, and have a lot more fun while they're doing it.
- Anne Lamott

A diamond with a flaw is better than a common stone that is perfect.
- Chinese Proverb

Be not angry that you cannot make others as you wish them to be, since you cannot make yourself as you wish to be.
- Thomas a Kempis


No one is perfect..that’s why pencils have erasers
- Author Unknown

Gold cannot be pure and people cannot be perfect
- Chinese proverb

They say that nobody is perfect.Then they tell you that practice makes perfect. I wish they’d make up thr minds.
- Wilt Chamberlain

As long as you live, keep learning how to live
- Seneca

Have no fear of perfection-you’ll never reach it
- Salvador Dali

You see, when weaving a blanket, an Indian woman leaves a flaw in the weaving of that blanket to let the soul out
- Martha Graham

[UnregisteredXOXOXXO]

He who has hope has everything.
- Arabian Proverb

Hope is a state of mind, not of the world. Hope, in this deep and powerful sense, is not the same as joy that things are going well, or willingness to invest in enterprises that are obviously heading for success, but rather an ability to work for something because it is good.
- Vaclav Havel

For hope is but the dream of those that wake.
- Matthew Prior

Hope is the thing with feathers that perches in the soul.
- Emily Dickenson

If you do not hope, you will not find what is beyond your hopes.
- St. Clement of Alexandra

He gives strength to the weary and increases the power of the weak. Even youths grow tired and weary, and young men stumble and fall; but those who hope in the Lord will renew thr strength. They will soar on wings like eagles; they will run and not grow weary, they will walk and not be faint.
- Isaiah 40:29-31

Hope is like a bird that senses the dawn and carefully starts to sing while it is still dark.
- Anonymous

Man is a creature of hope and invention, both of which belie the idea that things cannot be changed - Tom Clancy

[Unregisteredyah!]

Nothing liberates our greatness like the desire to help, the desire to serve.
- Marianne Williamson, Author/Lecturer

Unselfish and noble actions are the most radiant pages in the biography of souls.
- David Thomas

Volunteering is not a choice, it's a responsibility.
- Ashley E. Hyder

Your talent is God's gift to you. What you do with it is your gift back to God.
- Anonymous

All labor that uplifts humanity has dignity and importance and should be undertaken with painstaking excellence.
- Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

You will come to know that what appears today to be a sacrifice will prove instead to be the greatest investment that you will ever make.
- Gorden B. Hinkley

Service is the rent we pay to be living. It is the very purpose of life and not something you do in your spare time.
–Marian Wright Edelman

…no matter how big government gets, and no matter how many services it provides, it can never take the place of volunteers.
- Ronald Reagan, 40th U.S. president

There is no exercise better for the heart than reaching down and lifting people up.
- John Andrew Holmes Jr., American writer and minister

Sacrifice is giving up something good for something better.
- Anonymous

The broadest, and maybe the most meaningful definition of volunteering: Doing more than you have to because you want to, in a cause you consider good.
- Ivan Scher

Freely we serve,
Because we freely love, as in our will
To love or not; in this we stand or fall.
- John Milton

Volunteers don't get paid, not because they're worthless, but because they're priceless.

[justa wondering]

it's better to belch and bare the shame then to swelch the belch and bare the pain.

[Unregistereduradick]

Penis enlargement surgery
Main article: Penis enlargement
Surgical techniques used for penis enlargement (enhancement phalloplasty) -- penis lengthening and penile widening (girth enhancement) -- have been in the urologic literature for many years.

There are two basic ways of enlarging the penis:

Penis lengthening surgery[14] involves the release of the fundiform ligament and the suspensory ligament that attaches the 2 erectile bodies to the pubic bone. Once these ligaments have been cut, part of the penile shaft (usually held within the body) drops forward and extends out, enlarging the penis in 2-3 cm.
Penis widening with PMMA injection. This method involves injection of silicone, PMMA[15] and other materials into the penis and scrotum, to achieve girth enlargement.

Think about it Jamie...

[Unregistered????]

Bert and Ernie were built by Don Sahlin from a simple design scribbled by Muppets creator Jim Henson. According to Frank Oz, Sahlin also defined thr characters on the basis of thr physical appearance: Ernie was an orange and Bert was a banana.

According to A&E's Biography, Ernie and Bert were the only Muppets to appear in the Sesame Street pilot episode, which was screen tested to a number of families in July 1969. Thr brief appearance was the only part of the pilot that tested well, so it was decided that not only should Muppet characters be the "stars" of the show, but would also interact with the human characters, something that was not done in the pilot.


[edit] Bert
Main article: Bert (Sesame Street)
Bert was originally performed by Frank Oz. Since 2001, Muppeteer Eric Jacobson has been phased in as Bert's primary performer.

Bert, though intelligent, is also grumpy, boring and easily frustrated. He enjoys activities such as paper clip and bottle cap collecting, cooking oatmeal and watching pigeons. In one sketch, Bert reads a book called "Boring Stories" and chuckles, "Boy, these Boring Stories are really exciting!" In the book Sesame Street Unpaved, Frank Oz says, "I was never really happy with Bert's character until about a year in, when I realized... that he was a very boring character, and I'd use that weakness as a strength for him." On a 2007 episode of Martha Stewart's TV program, in a sidelong reference to Tommy Newsom of Tonight Show fame, Bert was ironically described as "Mr. Excitement" by pal Cookie Monster.

Bert is good friends with a pigeon named Bernice, and has even created a dance called "Doin' the Pigeon". Bert serves as President of the National Association of W Lovers, a club dedicated to the letter W. Two conventions held by the W Lovers have been shown on the show. Bert also has pet goldfish, two of whom are named Lyle and Talbot, a reference to the actor Lyle Talbot. Bert has a twin brother, Bart; a nephew, Brad; and an Aunt Matilda.

The age of Bert and Ernie is regularly discussed on forums. Nothing official has ever been said, but most consider the duo adults, as they do not appear to be highly dependent on others. Helping suggestions of the characters bng young is a comment by Sesame Street Live performer Taylor Morgan. Morgan said to the Macon Telegraph that "I just kind of try to think like a 6-year-old or 7-year-old, because that's how old Bert is."[1]


[edit] Ernie
Main article: Ernie
Ernie was originally performed by Jim Henson. Since 1993, Muppeteer Steve Whitmire took on the role of Ernie following the death of Henson in 1990.

Ernie is well known for his fondness for baths with his Rubber duck and for having trouble trying to learn to play the saxophone because he would not "put down the duckie." The Rubber Ducky song is well known throughout the world. Children can visit Ernie at "Sesame Place," in Langhorne, Pennsylvania.

Ernie is a "live hands puppet", meaning that while operating the head of the puppet with his right hand, the puppeteer inserts his left hand into a T-shaped sleeve, capped off with a glove that matches the fabric "skin" of the puppet, thus "becoming" the left arm of the puppet. A second puppeteer usually provides the right arm.

Ernie's performance of "Rubber Duckie," whern he sings affectionately about his squeaking toy duck and the joy it brings him during bathtime, became a modest mainstream hit, reaching No. 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 in September 1970.[2]


[edit] Comedy routines
A typical Bert and Ernie skit follows one of two similar patterns, both beginning with Ernie devising a hare-brained idea and Bert calmly attempting to talk him out of it. Usually this ends with Bert losing his temper and Ernie remaining oblivious to his own bad idea. Sometimes Ernie's idea miraculously turns out to be correct, much to Bert's evident frustration.

An example of a Bert and Ernie skit is the banana in my ear joke:

Bert: "Hey, you've got a banana in your ear!"
Ernie: "What?"
Bert: "I said, YOU'VE GOT A BANANA IN YOUR EAR!"
Ernie: "What? I can't hear you; I've got a banana in my ear!"
Bert: "Hey, you've got a banana in your ear!"
Ernie: "I know, I'm keeping the alligator away."
Bert: "But there aren't any alligators on Sesame Street!"
Ernie: "I know, it's working!"

[edit] Rumors and misconceptions

Bert and Ernie shown as bng married at the 2008 Chicago gay pride parade.In 1997, the parody website "Bert is Evil" displayed Bert in a number of doctored photographs, implicating him in crimes ranging from the John F. Kennedy assassination to those of Jack the Ripper. A similar image from another source and featuring Bert conferring with Osama bin Laden was mistakenly included by a Bangladeshi print shop on a series of protest signs in late 2001 and 2002. [3]

Characters named Bert and Ernie appear in the film It's a Wonderful Life as a policeman and a taxi driver, respectively, though the use of the names by Henson is said to be a coincidence.[4] In the movie Elmo Saves Christmas, Sesame pokes fun at this.[citation needed]

Ernie and Bert share an apartment in the basement of 123 Sesame Street. Although they sleep in separate beds, this has led some to suggest that they are representations of gay lovers since they share a bedroom.[5] This is denied by Sesame Workshop, the corporation that owns the show and the characters, but the idea is sufficiently widespread that it has been used as the basis of jokes by Saturday Night Live, Family Guy, American Dad! and the Broadway play "Avenue Q".[citation needed]

Some of Bert's interactions with female characters appear to show that he is attracted to women. Bert serenades Connie Stevens in the Some Enchanted Evening segment of a Season One episode of The Muppet Show. Bert also recorded a song about his girlfriend, I Want to Hold Your Ear, which was released on several albums.

[Unregisteredyah!]

Ticks are blood-feeding parasites that are often found in tall grass and shrubs where they will wait to attach to a passing host. Physical contact is the only method of transportation for ticks. Ticks do not jump or fly, although they may drop from thr perch and fall onto a host. Some species actively stalk the host by foot.

Changes in temperature and day length are some of the factors signaling a tick to seek a host. Ticks can detect heat emitted or carbon dioxide respired from a nearby host. They will generally drop off the animal when full, but this may take several days. In some cases, ticks will live for some time on the blood of an animal. Ticks have a harpoon-like structure in thr mouth area, known as a hypostome, that allows them to anchor themselves firmly in place while feeding. The hypostome has a series of barbs angled back, which is why they are so difficult to remove once they have penetrated a host. Ticks can be found in most wooded or forested areas throughout the world. They are especially common in areas where there are deer trails or horse paths.

Some of the more common diseases that can be contracted from a tick bite include (listed alphabetically): Babesiosis, Ehrlichiosis, Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Southern tick-associated rash illness, Tick-borne relapsing fever, and Tularemia.


[edit] Population control

[edit] Case Study of the American Deer Tick
The blacklegged or deer tick (Ixodes scapularis) is dependent on the white-tailed deer for successful reproduction. Larval and nymph stages (immature ticks that cannot reproduce) of the deer tick feed on birds and small mammals. The adult female tick needs a large 3 day blood meal from the deer before she can reproduce and lay her 2000 or more eggs. Deer are the primary host for the adult deer tick and are key to the reproductive success of the tick.[2] .[citation needed] See the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station and Connecticut Department of Public Health joint publication "Tick Management Handbook" [3] for more details of the tick's life cycle and dependence on deer.

Numerous studies have shown that abundance and distribution of deer ticks are correlated with deer densities.[2][4][5][6] For example when the deer population was reduced by 74% at a 248-acre (1.00 km²) study site in Bridgeport, Connecticut, the number of nymphal ticks collected at the site decreased by 92%.[2] Furthermore, the relationship between deer abundance, tick abundance, and human cases of Lyme disease was well documented in the Mumford Cove Community in Groton, Connecticut, from 1996 to 2004. The deer population in Mumford Cove was reduced from about 77 deer per square mile to about 10 deer per square mile after 2 years of controlled hunting. After the initial reduction the deer population was maintained at low levels. Reducing deer densities to 10 deer per square mile was adequate to reduce by more than 90% the risk of humans contracting Lyme disease in Mumford Cove.[7] Deer population management must serve as the main tool in any long-term strategy to reduce human incidences of Lyme disease.[8]

A method of reducing deer tick (Ixodes scapularis/dammini) populations - Damminix [2] - may be cited. It consists of biodegradable cardboard tubes stuffed with permethrin-treated cotton and works in the following way: Mice collect the cotton for lining thr nests. The pesticide on the cotton kills any immature ticks that are feeding on the mice. It is important to put the tubes where mice will find them, such as in dense, dark brush or at the base of a log; mice are unlikely to gather the cotton from an open lawn. Best results are obtained with regular applications early in the spring and again in late summer. The more nghbors who also use Damminix, the better. Damminix appears to help control tick populations, particularly in the year following initial use. Note that it is not effective on the West Coast. See UMM Patient Education Link.

A potential alternative to Damminix's permethrin is fipronil. It is used in the Maxforce Tick Management system, in which fipronil is painted onto rodents visiting the plastic baitboxes. see[3]. This system is no longer generally available for sale by Bayer. In 2005, there were selective reports of grey squirrels "chewing" into some Maxforce TMS boxes in areas of the northern United States, compromising the child resistant box. Due to this problem, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) asked that all similarly designed TMS boxes applied in 2006 be covered with a protective shroud capable of preventing squirrel damage. The Maxforce TMS system remains registered by the federal EPA for its continued use. A metal shroud has been developed and is reportedly in use to eliminate any potential squirrel damage to the plastic box. This shroud reportedly satisfies the EPA's mandate to protect the boxes from such damage and is recommended by Bayer Environmental Science. Availability however outside of Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and Rhode Island may be minimal.


[edit] Other Control Measures
Also, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention offers advice on reducing ticks around your home. [4]

The parasitic Ichneumon wasp Ixodiphagus hookeri has long been investigated for its potential to control tick populations. It lays its eggs into ticks; the hatching wasps kill its host.

Another "natural" form of control for ticks is the Guineafowl. They consume mass quantities of ticks.[citation needed] Just 2 birds can clear 2 acres (8,100 m²) in a single year.

Topical (drops/dust) flea/tick medicines need to be used with care. Phenothrin (85.7%) in combination with Methopren was a popular topical flea/tick therapy for felines. Phenothrin kills adult fleas and ticks. Methoprene is an insect growth regulator that interrupts the insect's life cycle by killing the eggs. However, the EPA has made at l one manufacturer of these products withdraw some products and include strong cautionary statements on others, warning of adverse reactions.[9]

[Unregisteredyah!]

The location of the parts of the colon are ther in the abdominal cavity or behind it in the retroperitoneum. The colon in those areas is fixed in location.

Arterial supply to the colon comes from branches of the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries. Flow between these two systems communicates via a "marginal artery" that runs parallel to the colon for its entire length. Historically, it has been believed that the arc of Riolan, or the meandering mesenteric artery (of Moskowitz), is a variable vessel connecting the proximal SMA to the proximal IMA that can be extremely important if ther vessel is occluded. However, recent studies conducted with improved imaging technology have questioned the actual existence of this vessel, with some experts calling for the abolition of the terms from future medical literature.

Venous drainage usually mirrors colonic arterial supply, with the inferior mesenteric vn draining into the splenic vn, and the superior mesenteric vn joining the splenic vn to form the portal vn that then enters the liver.

Lymphatic drainage from the entire colon and proximal two-thirds of the rectum is to the paraortic nodes that then drain into the cisterna chyli. The lymph from the remaining rectum and anus can ther follow the same route, or drain to the internal illiac and superficial inguinal nodes. The dentate line only roughly marks this transition.


[edit] Ascending colon
The ascending colon, on the right side of the abdomen, is about 12.5 cm long. It is the part of the colon from the cecum to the hepatic flexure (the turn of the colon by the liver). It is retroperitoneal in most humans. In ruminant grazing animals the cecum empties into the spiral colon. Anteriorly it is related to the coils of small intestine, the right edge of the greater omentum, and the anterior abdominal wall. Posteriorly, it is related to the iliacus, the iliolumbar ligament, the quadratus lumborum, the transverse abdominis, the diaphragm at the tip o


[edit] Function
The large intestine comes after the small intestine in the digestive tract and measures approximately 1.5 meters in length. Although there are differences in the large intestine between different organisms, the large intestine is mainly responsible for storing waste, reclaiming water, maintaining the water balance, and absorbing some vitamins, such as vitamin K.

By the time the chyme has reached this tube, almost all nutrients and 90% of the water have been absorbed by the body. At this point some electrolytes like sodium, magnesium, and chloride are left as well as indigestible carbohydrates known as dietary fiber. As the chyme moves through the large intestine, most of the remaining water is removed, while the chyme is mixed with mucus and bacteria known as gut flora, and becomes feces. The bacteria break down some of the fiber for thr own nourishment and create acetate, propionate, and butyrate as waste products, which in turn are used by the cell lining of the colon for nourishment. This is an example of a symbiotic relationship and provides about one hundred calories a day to the body. The large intestine produces no digestive enzymes — chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. The pH in the colon varies between 5.5 and 7 (slightly acidic to neutral).


[edit] Pathology
There are a number of diseases or disorders of the colon:

Angiodysplasia of the colon
Chronic functional abdominal pain
Colitis
Colon cancer
Constipation
Crohn's disease
Diarrhea
Diverticulitis
Diverticulosis
Hirschsprung's disease (aganglionosis)
Intussusception
Irritable bowel syndrome
Polyposis (see also Colorectal polyp)
Pseudomembranous colitis
Ulcerative colitis and toxic megacolon

[Unregisteredyah!]

It grows throughout much of North America, including all Canadian provinces except Newfoundland (but not the Territories) and all U.S. states except Alaska, Hawai‘i, and California, and is normally found in wooded areas, especially along edge areas. It also grows in exposed rocky areas and in open fields and disturbed areas. It also grows as a forest understory plant, although it is only somewhat shade tolerant[1]. The plant is extremely common in suburban and exurban areas of New England, the Mid-Atlantic and Southern United States. It rarely grows at altitudes above 1,500 meters (5,000 ft), although the altitude limit varies in different locations[1]. The plants can grow as a shrub up to about 1.2 meters (4 ft) tall, as a groundcover 10–25 centimeters (4–10 in) high, or as a climbing vine on various supports. Older vines on substantial supports send out lateral branches that may at first be mistaken for tree limbs.

It is not particularly sensitive to soil moisture, although it does not grow in desert or arid conditions. It grows in a wide variety of soil types, and soil pH from 6.0 (acidic) to 7.9 (moderately alkaline). It can grow in areas subject to seasonal flooding or brackish water.[1]

It is more common now than when Europeans first entered North America. Real estate development adjacent to wild, undeveloped land has engendered "edge effects," enabling poison ivy to form vast, lush colonies in such places. It is listed as a noxious weed in the U.S. states of Minnesota and Michigan and the Canadian province of Ontario.


[edit] Characteristic appearance

Poison ivy flowers
Box Elder on the left, poison ivy on the right
Poison ivy vine with typical reddish "hairs"The leaves are ternate with three almond-shaped leaflets. The berries (actually drupes) are a grayish-white color and are a favorite winter food of some birds. This is the basis of mnemonics such as "Leaves of three, let it be; leaves of four, eat some more"; variants include "... hairy vine, no friend of mine",[2] "... berries white, run in fright" and "... berries white, danger in sight".[3]

The color ranges from light green (usually the younger leaves) to dark green (mature leaves), turning bright red in fall. The leaflets of mature leaves are somewhat shiny. The leaflets are 3-12 cm long, rarely up to 30 cm. Each leaflet has a few or no teeth along its edge, and the leaf surface is smooth. Leaflet clusters are alternate on the vine, and the plant has no thorns. These three characteristics: (a) clusters of three leaflets, (b) alternate, and (c) lack of thorns, are sufficient to positively identify the plant. If it is growing up the trunk of a tree, the presence of copious root-hairs will identify it,[4] leading to the "hairy vine, no friend of mine" warning.

Poison ivy spreads both vegetatively and sexually. The vines put down adventitious roots, or the plant can spread from rhizomes or root crowns. The plant flowers in May to July and produces mature fruits by August to November. Seeds are spread mainly by animals, and are viable after passing through the digestive tract of birds.[1]


[edit] Effects on the body
Main article: Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis
The reaction caused by poison-ivy, urushiol-induced contact dermatitis, is an allergic reaction. Around 15%[5] to 30%[6] of people have no allergic response, but most if not all will become sensitized over time with repeated or more concentrated exposure to urushiol. Note that reactions that worsen over time may progress to anaphylaxis and can therefore be dangerous, even life-threatening.

For those who are affected by urushiol, it causes a very irritating rash. In extreme cases, corticosteroids can be needed to treat rashes and severe itching. The first symptom of contact is a severe itching of the skin that develops into reddish colored inflammation or non-colored bumps, and then blistering of the skin occurs. In severe cases, clear fluids ooze from open blistered sores. Once the urushiol poison has had contact with the skin, it is quickly bound to the skin.

The oozing fluids released by itching blisters do not spread the poison. The appearance of a spreading rash indicates that some areas recved more of the poison and reacted sooner than other areas. The blisters and oozing result from blood vessels that develop gaps and leak fluid through the skin; if the skin is cooled, the vessels constrict and leak less. If poison ivy is burned and the smoke then inhaled, this rash will appear on the lining of the lungs, causing extreme pain and possibly fatal respiratory difficulty. If poison ivy is eaten, the digestive tract, airway, kidneys or other organs can be damaged.

Understanding why new lesions may develop for two weeks (studied on forearm) after one exposure was made clear by a University of Miami scientist: larger amounts have earliest onset and largest reaction, smallest produce a delayed reaction. The overall severity 'progresses' with the combined active lesions. Therefore, the last new lesion should occur at two weeks after last exposure, the total rash (untreated) may go on for 3-4 weeks.

Urushiol oil can remain active for several years, so handling dead leaves or vines can cause a reaction. In addition, oil transferred from the plant to other objects (such as pet fur) can cause the rash if it comes into contact with the skin.[7]

People who are sensitive to poison-ivy can also experience a similar rash from mangoes. Mangoes are in the same family (Anacardiaceae) as poison ivy; the sap of the mango tree and skin of mangoes has a chemical compound similar to urushiol. [8]

Similar reactions have been reported occasionally from contact with the related aromatic sumac or Japanese lacquer tree.


[edit] Confusion with other plants
Boxelder Maple (Acer negundo) saplings can look almost indistinguishable from poison ivy. While Boxelder Maples often have five or seven leaflets, three leaflets are also common. The two can be differentiated by the fact that Poison-ivy has alternate leaves, while the maple has opposite leaves; in other words, by observing where the leaf stalk (the "branch" the three leaflets are attached to) meets the main branch. Another leaf stalk directly on the opposite side is characteristic of Boxelder Maple. If the three-leaflet leaves alternate along the main branch, it may be Poison-ivy.
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) vines can look like Poison-ivy. The younger leaves can consist of three leaflets but have a few more serrations along the leaf edge, and the leaf surface is somewhat wrinkled. However, most Virginia creeper leaves have five leaflets. Virginia creeper and poison ivy very often grow together, even on the same tree. Beware that even people who do not get poison ivy may be allergic to the oxalate crystals that are in its sap.
Western Poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum‎) leaflets also come in threes on the end of a stem, but each leaflet is shaped somewhat like an oak leaf. Western Poison-oak only grows in the western United States and Canada, although many people will refer to poison ivy as poison-oak. This is because poison ivy will grow in ther the ivy-like form or the brushy oak-like form depending on the moisture and brightness of its environment. The ivy form likes shady areas with only a little sun, tends to climb the trunks of trees, and can spread rapidly along the ground.
Poison Sumac (Toxicodendron vernix) has compound leaves with 7–15 leaflets. Poison sumac never has only three leaflets.
Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) is a non-toxic edible vine that scrambles extensively over lower vegetation or grows high into trees. Kudzu is an invasive species in the southern United States. Like poison ivy it has three leaflets, but the leaflets are bigger than those of poison ivy and are pubescent underneath with hairy margins.
Blackberry and raspberry vines bear a passing resemblance to poison ivy, with which they may share territory. The chief difference between blackberry vines and poison ivy is that blackberry vines have spines on them, whereas poison ivy is smooth. Also, the three-leaflet pattern of blackberry vine leaves changes as the plant grows: the two bottom leaves both split into two leaves, for a total of five in a cluster. They have many teeth along the leaf edge, and the top surface of thr leaves is very wrinkled where the vns are, and the bottom of the leaves is light minty - greenish white, while poison ivy is all green. The stem and vine of poison ivy are brown and woody, while blackberry stems are green with thorns.
The thick vines of grape, with no rootlets visible, differ from the vines of poison ivy, which have so many rootlets that the stem going up a tree looks furry.

[Unregisteredyah!]

George Jetson is a fictional character who appears in the animated series The Jetsons. George is the husband of Jane Jetson and the father of teenage daughter Judy and elementary school aged son Elroy. George was also the grandson of Montahue Jetson, who would sometimes visit the family. George lived with his family in the Skypad Apartments in Orbit City, in a future with the traditional trappings of science fantasy depictions of American life in the future: robot servants, flying saucer-like cars, moving sidewalks, etc. Indeed, all the buildings were set on giant poles, and resembled Seattle, Washington's Space Needle; the ground almost never seen.

George was an employee at Spacely's Space Sprockets, a manufacturer of "sprockets" and other high tech equipment. His boss was Cosmo G. Spacely, who was noted for bng both short in hght and in temper, and usually treated his employees (particularly George) in a rather tyrannical fashion. George's job primarily required him to repeatedly push a single button (or on occasion a series of buttons) on a computer (named RUDI in the 1980s series of Jetsons episodes). Once George complained of his heavy work load-having to push a button for one hour for one day of the week! Often, Mr. Spacely would fire George in a fit of anger, only to hire him back by the end of the same episode.

Physically, George is a rather slim man of average hght with short red hair and a cartoonishly large nose. His personality was that of a well-meaning, caring father, but often was befuddled and stressed out by the problems of both his work and family lives. As The Jetsons was partially based on the comic strip Blondie, George himself was probably based on that strip's lead character, Dagwood Bumstead.[citation needed]

George's most famous catchphrase is "Jane! Stop this crazy thing!" seen at the end credits of the 1960s Jetsons episodes, but was also known for frequently uttering the phrase "Hooba-dooba-dooba!" to express wonder or astonishment.

George O'Hanlon was the voice actor who did George's voice in both the sixties and ghties version of the cartoon series. O'Hanlon last did the voice for George Jetson in Jetsons: The Movie, which was released posthumously.

The current voice of George Jetson is Jeff Bergman, who voiced George (and also Mr. Spacely) in some parts of the movie after O'Hanlon's death, and also voiced George for the cameo in the Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law episode "Shaggy Busted" and Spümcø's two Jetsons cartoons: Father & Son Day and The Best Son.

In the Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law episode "Back to the Present," George was voiced by Wally Wingert. In the episode, the Jetsons return to the past to sue the planet for causing global warming.

[Unregisteredyah!]

Beavers are best known for thr natural trait of building dams in rivers and streams, and building thr homes (known as beaver lodges) in the resulting pond. They are the second-largest rodent in the world (after the capybara).

They are also known for thr "danger signal": when startled or frightened, a swimming beaver will rapidly dive while forcefully slapping the water with its broad tail. This creates a loud 'slap', audible over large distances above and below water. This noise serves as a warning to other beavers in the area. Once a beaver has made this danger signal, all nearby beavers will dive and may not reemerge for some time. Although this happens rarely, a frightened beaver may attack a human.[1]


Beaver tracks in snow, in Ontario. Hind paws approx. 20 cm (7.9 in) long.Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other superficial deposits of England and the continent of Europe; while in the Plstocene formations of England and Siberia occur remains of a giant extinct beaver, Trogontherium cuvieri, representing a genus by itself.

Beavers have webbed hind-feet, and a broad, scaly tail. They have poor eyesight, but keen senses of hearing, smell, and touch.


Beaver swimmingBeavers continue to grow throughout life. Adult specimens wghing over 25 kg (55 lb) are not uncommon. Females are as large as or larger than males of the same age, which is uncommon among mammals.


[edit] Etymology
The word is descended from the Proto-Indo-European name of the animal, cf. Sanskrit babhru's, brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. fiber, Ger. Biber, Swed. bäver, Russ. bobr'; the root bhru has given "brown," and, through Romanic, "bronze" and "burnish."[2]


[edit] Species
Beavers are closely related to squirrels (Sciuridae), agreng in certain structural peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull. In the Sciuridae the two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower half of the leg are quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the habitats are arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or Castoridae these bones are in close contact at thr lower ends, the tail is depressed, expanded and scaly, and thr habitats are aquatic.[2]

Both European and American beavers grow to about 2 ft (0.61 m) long (plus 10 in (250 mm) of tail). They are essentially aquatic in thr habits, never travelling by land unless driven by necessity. They are crepuscular rather than nocturnal, which means they are active at dawn and dusk,[3] and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the roots of water plants. They have also been known to eat grasses on the banks of rivers and streams.


[edit] European Beaver
Main article: European Beaver

A European BeaverThe European Beaver (Castor fiber) was hunted almost to extinction in Europe, both for fur and for castoreum, a secretion of its scent gland believed to have medicinal properties. However, the beaver is now bng re-introduced throughout Europe. Several thousand live on the Elbe, the Rhone and in parts of Scandinavia. A thriving community lives in north Poland, and the European Beaver also returned to the Morava River banks in Slovakia and the Czech Republic. They have been rntroduced in Scotland[4], Bavaria, Austria, The Netherlands and Serbia (Zasavica bog) and are spreading to new locations.

The beaver became extinct in Great Britain in the sixteenth century: Giraldus Cambrensis reported in 1188 (Itinerarium ii.iii) that it was to be found only in the Tfi in Wales and in one river in Scotland, though his observations are clearly first hand. In October 2005, six European beavers were re-introduced to Britain in Lower Mill Estate in Gloucestershire; in July 2007 a colony of four European beavers was established at Martin Mere in Lancashire,[5] and there are plans for re-introductions in Scotland and Wales.[6][7]


[edit] American Beaver
Main article: American Beaver

An American BeaverThe American Beaver (Castor canadensis), also called the Canadian Beaver (which is also the name of a subspecies), or simply Beaver in North America, is native to Canada, much of the United States and parts of northern Mexico. The chief feature distinguishing C. canadensis from C. fiber is the form of the nasal bones of the skull.[2] This species was introduced to the Argentine and Chilean Tierra del Fuego, as well as Finland, France, Poland and Russia.

The American beaver's preferred food is the water-lily (Nuphar luteum), which bears a resemblance to a cabbage-stalk, and grows at the bottom of lakes and rivers.[8] Beavers also gnaw the bark of birch, poplar, and willow trees; but during the summer a more varied herbage, with the addition of berries, is consumed.


American Beaver.These animals are often trapped for thr fur. During the early 19th century, trapping eliminated this animal from large portions of its original range. However, through trap and transfer and habitat conservation it made a nearly complete recovery by the 1940s. Beaver furs were used to make clothing and top-hats. Much of the early exploration of North America was driven by the quest for this animal's fur. Native peoples and early settlers also ate this animal's meat. The current beaver population has been estimated to be 10 to 15 million; one estimate claims that there may at one time have been as many as 90 million[9]


[edit] Giant beaver
Main article: Giant beaver
The North American Giant beaver (Castoroides ohioensis) was one of largest rodents that ever evolved. It disappeared along with other large mammals in the Holocene extinction event, which began about 13,000 years ago.


[edit] Habitat
The habitat of the beaver is the riparian zone inclusive of stream bed. The actions of beavers for hundreds of thousands of years in the Northern Hemisphere have kept these watery systems healthy and in good repair, although a human observing all the downed trees might think that the beavers were doing just the opposite.

The beaver works as a keystone species in an ecosystem by creating wetlands that are used by many other species. Next to humans, no other extant animal appears to do more to shape its landscape[citation needed].


[edit] Effect of beaver on trees

These trees, up to 250 mm (9.8 in) in diameter, felled by beavers in one night.
Beaver cuts high above ground are made in winter, by beavers working on top of crusted snow
A tree abandoned by beavers, possibly too large or in a less desirable locationBeavers fell trees for several reasons. They fell large mature trees, usually in strategic locations, to form the basis of a dam. They fell small trees, especially young second growth trees, for food. Ponds created by beavers also kill trees by drowning.


[edit] The dam's primary role: the beaver's home
Beaver dams are created both as a protection against predators, such as coyotes, wolves and bears, and to provide easy access to food during winter. Beavers always work at night and are prolific builders, carrying mud and stones with thr fore-paws and timber between thr teeth. Because of this, destroying a beaver dam without removing the beavers is difficult, especially if the dam is downstream of an active lodge. Beavers can rebuild such primary dams overnight, though they may not defend secondary dams as vigorously.

[Unregisteredyah!]

The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is an African even-toed ungulate mammal, the tallest of all land-living animal species, and the largest ruminant. Males can be 4.8 to 5.5 metres (16 to 18 feet) tall and wgh up to 1,700 kilograms (3,800 pounds). The record-sized bull, shot in Kenya in 1934, was 5.87 m (19.2 ft) tall and wghed approximately 2,000 kg (4,400 lb).[2] Females are generally slightly shorter, and wgh less than the males do.

The giraffe is related to deer and cattle, but is placed in a separate family, the Giraffidae, consisting only of the giraffe and its closest relative, the okapi. Its range extends from Chad to South Africa.

Giraffes can inhabit savannas, grasslands, or open woodlands. They prefer areas enriched with acacia growth. They drink large quantities of water and, as a result, they can spend long periods of time in dry, arid areas. When searching for more food they will venture into areas with denser foliage.


Etymology
The species name camelopardalis (camelopard) is derived from its early Roman name, where it was described as having characteristics of both a camel and a leopard.[3] The English word camelopard first appeared in the 14th century and survived in common usage well into the 19th century. The Afrikaans language retained it. The Arabic word الزرافة ziraafa or zurapha, meaning "assemblage" (of animals), or just "tall", was used in English from the sixteenth century on, often in the Italianate form giraffa.


Taxonomy and evolution

Comparison of the African Miocene giraffids: Palaeotragus (two top)and Climacoceras (two bottom)Giraffids evolved from a 3 metre (10 ft) tall antelope-like mammal which roamed Europe and Asia 30-50 million years ago.[4] The earliest giraffid was the Climacoceras, which still resembled deer, having large antler-like ossicones. It first appeared in the early Miocene period. As the lineage went on the genuses Palaeotragus and Samotherium appeared in the early to mid-Miocene. One species of Palaeotragus developed more giraffe-like ossicones. They both were tall at the shoulder but still had short necks. For there the genus Giraffa evolved in the Pliocene period and Okapia evolved in the Plstocene. The modern long-necked giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis, appeared 1 million years ago.

Classification
There are nine generally accepted subspecies, differentiated by colour and pattern variations and range:

Reticulated or Somali Giraffe (G.c. reticulata) — large, polygonal liver-coloured spots outlined by a network of bright white lines. The blocks may sometimes appear deep red and may also cover the legs. Range: northern Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia.
Angolan or Smoky Giraffe (G.c. angolensis) — large spots and some notches around the edges, extending down the entire lower leg. Range: Angola, Zambia.
Kordofan Giraffe (G.c. antiquorum) — smaller, more irregular spots that cover the inner legs. Range: western and southwestern Sudan.
Masai or Kilimanjaro Giraffe (G.c. tippelskirchi) — jagged-edged, vine-leaf shaped spots of dark chocolate on a yellowish background. Range: central and southern Kenya, Tanzania.
Nubian Giraffe (G.c. camelopardalis) — large, four-sided spots of chestnut brown on an off-white background and no spots on inner sides of the legs or below the hocks. Range: ern Sudan, north Congo.
Rothschild Giraffe or Baringo Giraffe or Ugandan Giraffe (G.c. rothschildi) — deep brown, blotched or rectangular spots with poorly defined cream lines. Hocks may be spotted. Range: Uganda, north-central Kenya.
South African Giraffe (G.c. giraffa) — rounded or blotched spots, some with star-like extensions on a light tan background, running down to the hooves. Range: South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique.
Thornicroft or Rhodesian Giraffe (G.c. thornicrofti) — star-shaped or leafy spots extend to the lower leg. Range: ern Zambia.
West African or Nigerian Giraffe (G.c. peralta) — numerous pale, yellowish red spots. Range: Niger, Cameroon.
Some scientists regard Kordofan and West African Giraffes as a single subspecies; similarly with Nubian and Rothschild's Giraffes, and with Angolan and South African Giraffes. Further, some scientists regard all populations except the Masai Giraffes as a single subspecies. By contrast, scientists have proposed four other subspecies — Cape Giraffe (G.c. capensis), Lado Giraffe (G.c. cottoni), Congo Giraffe (G.c. congoensis), and Transvaal Giraffe (G.c. wardi) — but none of these is widely accepted.

Though giraffes of these populations interbreed freely under conditions of captivity, suggesting that they are subspecific populations, genetic testing published in 2007[5] has been interpreted to show that there may be at l six species of giraffe that are reproductively isolated and not interbreeding, even though no natural obstacles, like mountain ranges or impassable rivers block thr mutual access. In fact, the study found that the two giraffe populations that live closest to each other— the reticulated giraffe (G. camelopardalis reticulata) of north Kenya, and the Masai giraffe (G. c. tippelskirchi) in south Kenya— separated genetically between 0.13 and 1.62 million years BP, judging from genetic drift in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA.

The implications for conservation of as many as eleven such cryptic species and sub-species were summarised by David Brown for BBC News: "Lumping all giraffes into one species obscures the reality that some kinds of giraffe are on the brink. Some of these populations number only a few hundred individuals and need immediate protection."


Reproduction
Giraffe gestation lasts between 14 and 15 months, after which a single calf is born. The mother gives birth standing up and the embryonic sack usually bursts when the baby falls to the ground. Newborn giraffes are about 1.8 m (6 ft) tall.


Mating Angolan Giraffes at Chudop waterhole, Etosha, Namibia.Within a few hours of bng born, calves can run around and are indistinguishable from a week-old calf; however, for the first two weeks, they spend most of thr time lying down, guarded by the mother. The young can fall prey to lions, leopards, spotted hyenas, and wild dogs. It has been speculated that thr characteristic spotted pattern provides a certain degree of camouflage. Only 25 to 50% of giraffe calves reach adulthood; the life expectancy is between 20 and 25 years in the wild and 28 years in captivity (Encyclopedia of Animals).


Necking

Two males necking.As noted above, males often engage in necking, which has been described as having various functions. One of these is combat. Battles can be fatal, but are more often less severe. The longer the neck, and the heavier the head at the end of the neck, the greater the force a giraffe is able to deliver in a blow. It has also been observed that males that are successful in necking have greater access to estrous females, so the length of the neck may be a product of sexual selection.[7]

After a necking duel, a giraffe can land a powerful blow with his head — occasionally knocking a male opponent to the ground. These fights rarely last more than a few minutes or end in physical harm.

Another function of necking is affectionate and sexual, in which two males will caress and court each other, leading up to mounting and climax. Same sex relations are more frequent than heterosexual behaviour. In one area 94% of mounting incidents were of a homosexual nature. The proportion of same sex courtships varies between 30 and 75%, and at any given time one in twenty males will be engaged in affectionate necking behaviour with another male. Females, on the other hand, only appear to have same sex relations in 1% of mounting incidents.[8]

[Unregisteredyah!]

Zebras were the second species to diverge from the earliest proto-horses, after the asses, around 4 million years ago. The Grevy's zebra is believed to have been the first zebra species to emerge. Fossils of an ancient equid were discovered in the Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument in Hagerman, Idaho. It was named the Hagerman horse with a scientific name of Equus simplicidens. It is believed to have been similar to the Grevy's zebra. The animals had stocky zebra-like bodies and short, narrow, donkey-like skulls.[1] The Grevy's zebra also has a donkey-like skull. The Hagerman horse is also called the American zebra or Hagerman zebra.


Species

Zebras in BotswanaThere are three extant species, as well as several subspecies. Zebra populations vary a great deal, and the relationships between and the taxonomic status of several of the subspecies are well known.

The Plains Zebra (Equus quagga, formerly Equus burchelli) is the most common, and has or had about twelve subspecies distributed across much of southern and ern Africa. It, or particular subspecies of it, have also been known as the Common Zebra, the Dauw, Burchell's Zebra (actually the subspecies Equus quagga burchelli), Chapman's Zebra, Wahlberg's Zebra, Selous' Zebra, Grant's Zebra, Boehm's Zebra and the Quagga (another extinct subspecies, Equus quagga quagga).

The Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra) of southwest Africa tends to have a sleek coat with a white belly and narrower stripes than the Plains Zebra. It has two subspecies and is classified as endangered.

Grevy's Zebra (Equus grevyi) is the largest type, with a long, narrow head making it appear rather mule-like. It is an inhabitant of the semi-arid grasslands of Ethiopia and northern Kenya. The Grevy's Zebra is one of the rarest species of zebra around today, and is classified as endangered.

Although zebra species may have overlapping ranges, they do not interbreed. This held true even when the Quagga and Burchell's race of Plains Zebra shared the same area. According to Dorcas McClintock in "A Natural History Of Zebras," Grevy's zebra has 46 chromosomes; plains zebras have 44 chromosomes and mountain zebras have 32 chromosomes. In captivity, Plains Zebras have been crossed with mountain zebras. The hybrid foals lacked a dewlap and resembled the Plains Zebra apart from thr larger ears and thr hindquarters pattern. Attempts to breed a Grevy's zebra stallion to Mountain Zebra mares resulted in a high rate of miscarriage.

[Unregisteredyah!]

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is a member of the Felidae family; the largest and the most powerful of the four "big cats" in the genus Panthera.[3] Native to much of ern and southern Asia, the tiger is an apex predator and an obligate carnivore. Reaching up to 4 metres (13 ft) in total length and wghing up to 300 kilograms (660 pounds), the larger tiger subspecies are comparable in size to the biggest extinct felids.[4][5] Aside from thr great bulk and power, thr most recognizable feature is the pattern of dark vertical stripes that overlays near-white to reddish-orange fur, with lighter underparts.

Highly adaptable, tigers range from the Siberian taiga, to open grasslands, to tropical mangrove swamps. They are territorial and generally solitary animals, often requiring large contiguous areas of habitat that support thr prey demands. This, coupled with the fact that they are endemic to some of the more densely populated places on earth, has caused significant conflicts with humans. Of the nine subspecies of modern tiger, three are extinct and the remaining six are classified as endangered, some critically so. The primary direct causes are habitat destruction and fragmentation, and hunting. Thr historical range, which once reached from Mesopotamia and the Caucasus through most of South and Asia, has been radically reduced. While all surviving species are under formal protection, poaching, habitat destruction and inbreeding depression continue to be threats.

Nonetheless, tigers are among the most recognizable and popular of the world's charismatic megafauna. They have featured prominently in ancient mythology and folklore, and continue to be depicted in modern films and literature. Tigers appear on many flags and coats of arms, as mascots for sporting teams, and as the national animal of several Asian nations.

Contents [show]
1 Naming and etymology
2 Range
3 Taxonomy and evolution
3.1 Subspecies
3.2 Extinct subspecies
3.3 Hybrids
4 Biology and behaviour
4.1 Physical characteristics
4.1.1 White tigers
4.2 Territorial behavior
4.3 Hunting and diet
4.4 Interspecific predatory relationships
4.5 Reproduction
5 Habitat
6 Conservation efforts
6.1 India
6.2 Russia
6.3 Tibet
6.4 Rewilding
6.4.1 Save China's Tigers
7 Relation with humans
7.1 Tiger as prey
7.2 Man-eating tigers
7.3 Traditional Asian medicine
7.4 As pets
7.5 Cultural depictions
7.6 World's favourite animal
8 Gallery
9 See also
10 Cited references
11 References
12 External links



Naming and etymology
The word "tiger" is taken from the Greek word "tigris", which is possibly derived from a Persian source meaning "arrow", a reference to the animal's speed and also the origin for the name of the River Tigris.[6][7] In American English, "Tigress" was first recorded in 1611. It was one of the many species originally described, as Felis tigris, by Linnaeus in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae.[8] The generic component of its scientific designation, Panthera tigris, is often presumed to derive from Greek pan- ("all") and ther ("b"), but this may be a folk etymology. Although it came into English through the classical languages, panthera is probably of Asian origin, meaning "the yellowish animal," or "whitish-yellow".[9]

A group of tigers[10] is rare (see below), but when seen together is termed a 'streak' or an 'ambush'.


Range

Range of the tiger including the western part 1900 and 1990In the historical past tigers were widespread in Asia, from the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea, to Siberia and Indonesia. During the 19th century the striped cats completely vanished from western Asia, and became restricted to isolated pockets in the remaining parts of thr range. Today, this fragmented relic range extends from India in the west to China and South Asia in the . The northern limit is close to the Amur River in south ern Siberia. The only large island inhabited by tigers today is Sumatra. Tigers vanished from Java during the second half of the 19th century, and in Borneo are known only from fossil remains.


Taxonomy and evolution
The oldest remains of a tiger-like cat, called Panthera palaeosinensis, have been found in China and Java. This species lived about 2 million years ago, at the beginning of the Plstocene, and was smaller than a modern tiger. The earliest fossils of true tigers are known from Java, and are between 1.6 and 1.8 million years old. Distinct fossils from the early and middle Plstocene were also discovered in deposits from China, and Sumatra. A subspecies called the Trinil tiger (Panthera tigris trinilensis) lived about 1.2 million years ago and is known fossils found at Trinil in Java.[11]

Tigers first reached India and northern Asia in the late Plstocene, reaching ern Beringia (but not the American Continent), and Japan, and Sakhalin. Fossils found in Japan indicate that the local tigers were, like the surviving island subspecies, smaller than the mainland forms. This may be due to the phenomenon in which body size is related to environmental space (see insular dwarfism), or perhaps the availability of prey. Until the Holocene, tigers also lived in Borneo.


Subspecies
There are nine recent subspecies of tiger, three of which are extinct, and one of which is almost certain to become extinct in the near future.[3] Thr historical range (severely diminished today) ran through Russia, Siberia, Iran, Afghanistan, India, China, and south Asia, including the Indonesian islands. The surviving subspecies, in descending order of wild population, are:


Bengal tigerThe Bengal tiger or the Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is found in parts of India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Burma. It lives in varied habitats: grasslands, subtropical and tropical rainforests, scrub forests, wet and dry deciduous forests, and mangroves. Males in the wild usually wgh 205 to 227 kg (450–500 lb), while the average female will wgh about 141 kg.[12] However, the northern Indian and the Nepalese Bengal tigers are somewhat bulkier than those found in the south of the Indian Subcontinent, with males averaging around 236 kg (520 lb).[13] While conservationists already believed the population to be below 2,000,[14] the most recent audit by the Indian Government's National Tiger Conservation Authority has estimated the number at just 1,411 wild tigers (1165-1657 allowing for statistical error), a drop of 60% in the past decade.[15] Since 1972, there has been a massive wildlife conservation project, known as Project Tiger, to protect the Bengal tiger. The project is considered as one of the most successful wildlife conservation programs[citation needed], though at l one Tiger Reserve (Sariska Tiger Reserve) has lost its entire tiger population to poaching.[16]

Indochinese tigerThe Indochinese tiger (Panthera tigris corbetti), also called Corbett's tiger, is found in Cambodia, China, Laos, Burma, Thailand, and Vietnam. These tigers are smaller and darker than Bengal tigers: Males wgh from 150–190 kg (330–420 lb) while females are smaller at 110–140 kg (242–308 lb). Thr preferred habitat is forests in mountainous or hilly regions. Estimates of the Indochinese tiger population vary between 1,200 to 1,800, with only several hundred left in the wild. The largest current population is in Malaysia, where illegal poaching is strictly controlled, but all existing populations are at extreme risk from habitat fragmentation and inbreeding. In Vietnam, almost three-quarters of the tigers killed provide stock for Chinese pharmacies.
The Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris malayensis), exclusively found in the southern part of the Malay Peninsula, was not considered a subspecies in its own right until 2004. The new classification came about after a study by Luo et al. from the Laboratory of Genomic Diversity Study,[17] part of the National Cancer Institute of the United States. Recent counts showed there are 600–800 tigers in the wild, making it the third largest tiger population, behind the Bengal tiger and the Indochinese tiger. The Malayan tiger is the smallest of the mainland tiger subspecies, and the second smallest living subspecies, with males averaging about 120 kg and females about 100 kg in wght. The Malayan tiger is a national icon in Malaysia, appearing on its coat of arms and in logos of Malaysian institutions, such as Maybank.

[Unregisteredyah!]

An orgasm (sexual climax) is the conclusion of the plateau phase of the sexual response cycle, and may be experienced by both males and females. Orgasm is characterized by intense physical pleasure, controlled by the involuntary, or autonomic, nervous system.[1] It is accompanied by quick cycles of muscle contraction in the lower pelvic muscles, which surround the primary sexual organs and the anus. Orgasms are often associated with other involuntary actions, including muscular spasms in other areas of the body, a general euphoric sensation, and frequently, vocalizations.

Post orgasm is often experienced as relaxing, which is attributed to the release of prolactin.[2] Male and female brains demonstrate similar changes during orgasm, with brain scans showing a temporary reduction in the activity of large parts of the cerebral cortex.[3]


Achieving orgasm
One of the main ways of achieving orgasm is by direct or indirect stimulation of the penis or clitoris. Such stimulation can come from a variety of activities, including but not limited to sexual intercourse, manual masturbation, anal sex, oral sex, non-penetrative sex, a sensual vibrator, or an erotic electrostimulation. Orgasm may also be achieved by stimulation of the nipples or other erogenous zones. In the absence of physical stimulation, orgasm can be from psychological arousal alone, or during dreaming (a nocturnal emission or "wet dream" in males).

Important in sexual stimulation are internal glands, called the Skene's glands in women and the prostate in men, two homologous structures. In common use, the term G-spot refers to these areas.

The stimulation can come from receptive intercourse, fingering, fisting, or penetration with a dildo.

With sufficient stimulation, the prostatic structure can also be "milked." Providing that there is no simultaneous stimulation of the penis, prostate milking can cause ejaculation without orgasm. When combined with penile stimulation, some men report that prostate stimulation increases the volume of thr ejaculation.


Vaginal orgasm
The female body can achieve orgasm from stimulation of the clitoris and from stimulation of the G-spot. The Gräfenberg spot, or G-spot, is a small area behind the female pubic bone surrounding the urethra and accessible through the anterior wall of the vagina. Many scientists believe that only certain women possess a G-spot[citation needed]. The G-spot orgasm is sometimes referred to as "vaginal," because it results from stimulation inside the vagina, including during sexual intercourse. However, only stimulation of the G-spot, and not other intravaginal stimulation, results in a "vaginal orgasm."[citation needed]

The "two-orgasm theory" (the belief that in women there is a vaginal orgasm and a clitoral orgasm), has been criticized by feminists such as Ellen Ross and Rayna Rapp as a "transparently male perception of the female body".[4] The concept of purely vaginal orgasm was first postulated by Sigmund Freud. In 1905, Freud argued that clitoral orgasm was an adolescent phenomenon, and upon reaching puberty the proper response of mature women changes to vaginal orgasms. While Freud provided no evidence for this basic assumption, the consequences of the theory were greatly elaborated, partly because many women felt inadequate when they could not achieve orgasm via vaginal intercourse that involved little or no clitoral stimulation.

In 1966, Masters and Johnson published pivotal research about the phases of sexual stimulation. Thr work included women and men, and unlike Alfred Kinsey earlier (in 1948 and 1953), tried to determine the physiological stages before and after orgasm.[5] One of the results was the promotion of the idea that vaginal and clitoral orgasms follow the same stages of physical response. Masters and Johnson also argued that clitoral stimulation is the primary source of orgasms.

Recent discoveries about the size of the clitoris - it extends inside the body, around the vagina[6] - complicate or may invalidate attempts to distinguish clitoral vs. vaginal orgasms. Recent anatomical research shows that there are nerves connecting intravaginal tissues and the clitoris.[citation needed] This, with the anatomical evidence that the internal part of the clitoris is a much larger organ than previously thought, could explain credible reports of orgasms in women who have undergone clitorectomy as part of female circumcision. The link between the clitoris and the vagina is evidence that the clitoris is the 'seat' of the female orgasm and is far more wide-spread than the visible part most people associate with it. But it is possible that some women have more extensive clitoral tissues and nerves than others, and so that some women can achieve orgasm only by direct stimulation of the external part of the clitoris.


Br and nipple stimulation
A br orgasm is a female orgasm that is triggered from the stimulation of a woman's br.[9] Not all women experience this effect when the brs are stimulated; however, some women claim that the stimulation of the br area during sexual intercourse and foreplay, or just the simple act of having thr brs fondled, has created mild to intense orgasms. According to one study that questioned 213 women, 29% of them had experienced a br orgasm at one time or another,[10] This shows that it is not common, but it is possible. An orgasm is believed to occur in part because of the hormone oxytocin, which is produced in the body during sexual excitement and arousal. It has also been shown that oxytocin is produced when an individual's nipples are stimulated and become erect.[11]


Spontaneous orgasms
Orgasms can be spontaneous, seeming to occur with no direct stimulation. Occasionally, orgasms can occur during sexual dreams (see Nocturnal emission).

The first orgasm of this type was reported among people who had spinal cord injury (SCI). Although SCI very often leads to loss of certain sensations and altered self-perception, a person with this disturbance is not deprived of sexual feelings such as sexual arousal and erotic desires. Thus some individuals are able to initiate orgasm by mere mental stimulation.

Some non-sexual activity may result in a spontaneous orgasm. The best example of such activity is a release of tension that unintentionally involves slight genital stimulation, like rubbing of the seat of the bicycle against genitals during riding, exercising, when pelvic muscles are tightened or when yawning or sneezing.

It was also discovered that some anti-depressant drugs may provoke spontaneous climax as a side effect.[12] There is no accurate data for how many patients who were on treatment with antidepressant drugs experienced spontaneous orgasm, as most were unwilling to acknowledge the fact.


Involuntary orgasms
Orgasms can happen as the result of forced sexual contact as during rape or frotteurism. The incidence of those who experience unsolicited sexual contact and experience orgasm is very low, though possibly underreported due to shame or embarrassment. Involuntary orgasms can happen regardless of gender.[13]


Multiple orgasms
In some cases, women ther do not have a refractory period or have a very short one and thus can experience a second orgasm, and perhaps further ones, soon after the first. After the first, subsequent climaxes may be stronger or more pleasurable as the stimulation accumulates. For some women, thr clitoris and nipples are very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful.

There are sensational reports of women having too many orgasms, including an unauthenticated claim that a young British woman has them constantly throughout the day, whenever she experiences the slightest vibration.[14]

It is possible for a man to have an orgasm without ejaculation (dry orgasm) or to ejaculate without reaching orgasm. Some men have reported having multiple consecutive orgasms, particularly without ejaculation. Males who experience dry orgasms can often produce multiple orgasms, as the refractory period, is reduced.[15] Some males are able to masturbate for hours at a time, achieving orgasm many times.[15] In recent years, a number of books have described various techniques to achieve multiple orgasms. Most multi-orgasmic men (and thr partners) report that refraining from ejaculation results in a far more energetic post-orgasm state.[citation needed] Additionally, some men have also reported that this can produce more powerful ejaculatory orgasms when they choose to have them.

One dangerous technique is to put pressure on the perineum, about halfway between the scrotum and the anus, just before ejaculating to prevent ejaculation. This can, however, lead to retrograde ejaculation, i.e. redirecting semen into the urinary bladder rather than through the urethra to the outside. It may also cause long term damage due to the pressure put on the nerves and blood vessels in the perineum.[citation needed] Men who have had prostate or bladder surgery, for whatever reason, may also experience dry orgasms because of retrograde ejaculation.

[Unregisteredyah!]

Constipation, costiveness, or irregularity, is a condition of the digestive system in which a person (or animal) experiences hard feces that are difficult to expel. This usually happens because the colon absorbs too much water from the food. If the food moves through the gastro-intestinal tract too slowly, the colon may absorb too much water, resulting in feces that are dry and hard. Defecation may be extremely painful, and in severe cases (fecal impaction) lead to symptoms of bowel obstruction. The term obstipation is used for severe constipation that prevents passage of both stools and gas. Causes of constipation may be dietary, hormonal, anatomical, a side effect of medications (e.g. some painkillers), or an illness or disorder. Treatments consist of changes in dietary and exercise habits, the use of laxatives, and other medical interventions depending on the underlying cause.


Types 1 and 2 on the Bristol Stool Chart indicate constipationIn common constipation, the stool is hard, difficult, and painful to pass. Usually, there is an infrequent urge to void. Straining to pass stool may cause hemorrhoids and anal fissures, which are painful in themselves. In later stages of constipation, the abdomen may become distended and diffusely tender and crampy, occasionally with enhanced bowel sounds.

The definition of constipation includes the following:[1]

infrequent bowel movements (typically three times or fewer per week)
difficulty during defecation (straining during more than 25% of bowel movements or a subjective sensation of hard stools), or
the sensation of incomplete bowel evacuation.
Severe cases ("fecal impaction") may feature symptoms of bowel obstruction (vomiting, very tender abdomen) and "paradoxical diarrhea", where soft stool from the small intestine bypasses the impacted matter in the colon.


[edit] Diagnosis
The diagnosis is essentially made from the patient's description of the symptoms. Bowel movements that are difficult to pass, very firm, or made up of small rabbit-like pellets qualify as constipation, even if they occur every day. Other symptoms related to constipation can include bloating, distention, abdominal pain, or a sense of incomplete emptying.[2]

Inquiring about dietary habits may reveal a low intake of dietary fiber or inadequate amounts of fluids. Constipation as a result of poor ambulation or immobility should be considered in the elderly. Constipation may arise as a side effect of medications (especially antidepressants and opiates).[citation needed] Rarely, other symptoms suggestive of hypothyroidism may be elicited.[citation needed]

During physical examination, scybala (manually palpable lumps of stool) may be detected on palpation of the abdomen. Rectal examination gives an impression of the anal sphincter tone and whether the lower rectum contains any feces or not; if so, then suppositories or enemas may be considered. Otherwise, oral medication may be required. Rectal examination also gives information on the consistency of the stool, presence of hemorrhoids, admixture of blood and whether any tumors or abnormalities are present.

X-rays of the abdomen, generally only performed on hospitalized patients or if bowel obstruction is suspected, may reveal impacted fecal matter in the colon, and confirm or rule out other causes of similar symptoms.

Chronic constipation (symptoms present for more than 3 months at l 3 days per month) associated with abdominal discomfort is often diagnosed as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) when no obvious cause is found. Physicians caring for patients with chronic constipation are advised to rule out obvious causes through normal testing.[3]

Colonic propagating pressure wave sequences (PSs) are responsible for discrete movements of content and are vital for normal defaecation. Deficiencies in PS frequency, amplitude and extent of propagation are all implicated in severe defecatory dysfunction. Mechanisms that can normalise these aberrant motor patterns may help rectify the problem. Recently the novel therapy of sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) has been utilized for the treatment of severe constipation. [4]


[edit] Causes
The main causes of constipation include:

Hardening of the feces
Improper mastication (chewing) of food
Insufficient intake of dietary fiber
Dehydration from any cause or inadequate fluid intake
Medication, e.g. diuretics and those containing iron, calcium, aluminum
Paralysis or slowed transit, where peristaltic action is diminished or absent, so that feces are not moved along
Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid gland)
Hypokalemia
Injured anal sphincter (patulous anus)
Medications, such as loperamide, opioids (e.g. codne & morphine) and certain tricyclic antidepressants
Severe illness due to other causes
Acute porphyria (a rare inherited condition)
Lead poisoning
Dyschezia (usually the result of suppressing defecation)
Constriction, where part of the intestine or rectum is narrowed or blocked, not allowing feces to pass
Stenosis (Strictures)
Diverticula
Tumors, ther of the bowel or surrounding tissues
Obstructed defecation, due to:
Mechanical causes from morphological abnormalities of the anorectum including megarectum, rectal prolapse, rectocele, and enterocele
Functional causes from neurological disorders and dysfunction of the pelvic floor muscles or anorectal muscles, including anismus, descending perineum syndrome, and Hirschsprung's disease
Retained forgn body or a bezoar
Psychosomatic constipation, based on anxiety or unfamiliarity with surroundings.
Functional constipation
Constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome, characterized by a combination of constipation and abdominal discomfort and/or pain[5]
Smoking cessation (nicotine has a laxative effect)[6]
Abdominal surgery, other types of surgery, childbirth

[edit] Treatment
In people without medical problems, the main intervention is to increase the intake of fluids (preferably water) and dietary fiber. The latter may be achieved by consuming more vegetables and fruit and whole meal bread, and pulses such as baked beans and chick peas and by adding linseeds to one's diet. The routine non-medical use of laxatives is to be discouraged as this may result in bowel action becoming dependent upon thr use. Enemas can be used to provide a form of mechanical stimulation. However, enemas are generally useful only for stool in the rectum, not in the intestinal tract.

Lactulose, a non absorbable synthetic sugar that keeps sodium and water inside the intestinal lumen, relieves constipation. It can be used for months together. Among the other safe remedies, fiber supplements, lactitiol, sorbitol, milk of magnesia, lubricants etc. may be of value. Electrolyte imbalance e.g. Hyponatremia may occur in some cases especially in diabetics.

In alternative and traditional medicine, colonic irrigation, enemas, exercise, diet and herbs are used to treat constipation. The mechanism of the herbal, enema, and colonic irrigation treatments often include the breakdown of impacted and hardened fecal matter.


[edit] Laxatives
Main article: laxative
Laxatives may be necessary in people in whom dietary intervention is not effective or is inappropriate. Most laxatives can be safely used long-term, although some are associated with cramping and bloatedness and can cause the phenomenon of melanosis coli.


[edit] Physical intervention
Constipation that resists all the above measures requires physical intervention. Manual disimpaction (the physical removal of impacted stool) is done for those patients who have lost control of thr bowels secondary to spinal injuries. Manual disimpaction is also used by physicians and nurses to relieve rectal impactions. Finally, manual disimpaction can occasionally be done under sedation or a general anesthetic—this avoids pain and loosens the anal sphincter.

Many of the products are widely available over-the-counter. Enemas and clysters are a remedy occasionally used for hospitalized patients in whom the constipation has proven to be severe, dangerous in other ways, or resistant to laxatives. Sorbitol, glycerin and arachis oil suppositories can be used. Severe cases may require phosphate solutions introduced as enemas.


[edit] Prevention
Constipation is usually easier to prevent than to treat. The relief of constipation with osmotic agents, i.e. lactulose, polyethylene glycol (PEG), or magnesium salts, should immediately be followed with prevention using increased fiber (fruits, vegetables, and grains) and a nightly decreasing dose of osmotic laxative. With continuing narcotic use, for instance, nightly doses of osmotic agents can be given indefinitely (without harm) to cause a daily bowel movement.

Recent controlled studies have questioned the role of physical exercise in the prevention and management of chronic constipation, while exercise is often recommended by published materials on the subject.[7]


In various conditions (such as the use of codne or morphine), combinations of hydrating (e.g. lactulose or glycols), bulk-forming (e.g. psyllium) and stimulant agents may be necessary to prevent constipation.

[Unregisteredyah!]

Nothing liberates our greatness like the desire to help, the desire to serve.
- Marianne Williamson, Author/Lecturer

Unselfish and noble actions are the most radiant pages in the biography of souls.
- David Thomas

Volunteering is not a choice, it's a responsibility.
- Ashley E. Hyder

Your talent is God's gift to you. What you do with it is your gift back to God.
- Anonymous

All labor that uplifts humanity has dignity and importance and should be undertaken with painstaking excellence.
- Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

You will come to know that what appears today to be a sacrifice will prove instead to be the greatest investment that you will ever make.
- Gorden B. Hinkley

Service is the rent we pay to be living. It is the very purpose of life and not something you do in your spare time.
–Marian Wright Edelman

…no matter how big government gets, and no matter how many services it provides, it can never take the place of volunteers.
- Ronald Reagan, 40th U.S. president

There is no exercise better for the heart than reaching down and lifting people up.
- John Andrew Holmes Jr., American writer and minister

Sacrifice is giving up something good for something better.
- Anonymous

The broadest, and maybe the most meaningful definition of volunteering: Doing more than you have to because you want to, in a cause you consider good.
- Ivan Scher

Freely we serve,
Because we freely love, as in our will
To love or not; in this we stand or fall.
- John Milton

Volunteers don't get paid, not because they're worthless, but because they're priceless.

[Unregisteredjamiesadick]

Penis enlargement surgery
Main article: Penis enlargement
Surgical techniques used for penis enlargement (enhancement phalloplasty) -- penis lengthening and penile widening (girth enhancement) -- have been in the urologic literature for many years.

There are two basic ways of enlarging the penis:

Penis lengthening surgery[14] involves the release of the fundiform ligament and the suspensory ligament that attaches the 2 erectile bodies to the pubic bone. Once these ligaments have been cut, part of the penile shaft (usually held within the body) drops forward and extends out, enlarging the penis in 2-3 cm.
Penis widening with PMMA injection. This method involves injection of silicone, PMMA[15] and other materials into the penis and scrotum, to achieve girth enlargement.
Jamie needs this procedure bigtime!

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Any intelligent fool can make things bigger, more complex, and more violent. It takes a touch of genius -- and a lot of courage -- to move in the opposite direction."
"Imagination is more important than knowledge."
"Gravitation is not responsible for people falling in love."
"I want to know God's thoughts; the rest are details."
"The hardest thing in the world to understand is the income tax."
"Reality is merely an illusion, albt a very persistent one."
"The only real valuable thing is intuition."
"A person starts to live when he can live outside himself."
"I am convinced that He (God) does not play dice."
"God is subtle but he is not malicious."
"Weakness of attitude becomes weakness of character."
"I never think of the future. It comes soon enough."
"The eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility."
"Sometimes one pays most for the things one gets for nothing."
"Science without religion is lame. Religion without science is blind."
"Anyone who has never made a mistake has never tried anything new."
"Great spirits have often encountered violent opposition from weak minds."
"Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler."
"Common sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age ghteen."
"Science is a wonderful thing if one does not have to earn one's living at it."
"The secret to creativity is knowing how to hide your sources."
"The only thing that interferes with my learning is my education."
"God does not care about our mathematical difficulties. He integrates empirically."
"The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking."
"Technological progress is like an axe in the hands of a pathological criminal."
"Peace cannot be kept by force. It can only be achieved by understanding."
"The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it is comprehensible."
"We can't solve problems by using the same kind of thinking we used when we created them."
"Education is what remains after one has forgotten everything he learned in school."
"The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing."
"Do not worry about your difficulties in Mathematics. I can assure you mine are still greater."
"Equations are more important to me, because politics is for the present, but an equation is something for eternity."
"If A is a success in life, then A equals x plus y plus z. Work is x; y is play; and z is keeping your mouth shut."
"Two things are infinite: the universe and human stupidity; and I'm not sure about the the universe."
"As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality."
"Whoever undertakes to set himself up as a judge of Truth and Knowledge is shipwrecked by the laughter of the gods."
"I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones."
"In order to form an immaculate member of a flock of sheep one must, above all, be a sheep."
"The fear of death is the most unjustified of all fears, for there's no risk of accident for someone who's dead."
"Too many of us look upon Americans as dollar chasers. This is a cruel libel, even if it is rterated thoughtlessly by the Americans themselves."
"Heroism on command, senseless violence, and all the loathsome nonsense that goes by the name of patriotism -- how passionately I hate them!"
"No, this trick won't work...How on earth are you ever going to explain in terms of chemistry and physics so important a biological phenomenon as first love?"
"My religion consists of a humble admiration of the illimitable superior spirit who reveals himself in the slight details we are able to percve with our frail and feeble mind."
"Yes, we have to divide up our time like that, between our politics and our equations. But to me our equations are far more important, for politics are only a matter of present concern. A mathematical equation stands forever."
"The release of atom power has changed everything except our way of thinking...the solution to this problem lies in the heart of mankind. If only I had known, I should have become a watchmaker."
"Great spirits have always found violent opposition from mediocrities. The latter cannot understand it when a man does not thoughtlessly submit to hereditary prejudices but honestly and courageously uses his intelligence."
"The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and all science. He to whom this emotion is a stranger, who can no longer pause to wonder and stand rapt in awe, is as good as dead: his eyes are closed."
"A man's ethical behavior should be based effectually on sympathy, education, and social ties; no religious basis is necessary. Man would indeeded be in a poor way if he had to be restrained by fear of punishment and hope of reward after death."
"The further the spiritual evolution of mankind advances, the more certain it seems to me that the path to genuine religiosity does not lie through the fear of life, and the fear of death, and blind faith, but through striving after rational knowledge."
"Now he has departed from this strange world a little ahead of me. That means nothing. People like us, who believe in physics, know that the distinction between past, present, and future is only a stubbornly persistent illusion."
"You see, wire telegraph is a kind of a very, very long cat. You pull his tail in New York and his head is meowing in Los Angeles. Do you understand this? And radio operates exactly the same way: you send signals here, they recve them there. The only difference is that there is no cat."
"One had to cram all this stuff into one's mind for the examinations, whether one liked it or not. This coercion had such a deterring effect on me that, after I had passed the final examination, I found the consideration of any scientific problems distasteful to me for an entire year."
"...one of the strongest motives that lead men to art and science is escape from everyday life with its painful crudity and hopeless dreariness, from the fetters of one's own ever-shifting desires. A finely tempered nature longs to escape from the personal life into the world of objective perception and thought."
"He who joyfully marches to music rank and file, has already earned my contempt. He has been given a large brain by mistake, since for him the spinal cord would surely suffice. This disgrace to civilization should be done away with at once. Heroism at command, how violently I hate all this, how despicable and ignoble war is; I would rather be torn to shreds than be a part of so base an action. It is my conviction that killing under the cloak of war is nothing but an act of murder."
"A human bng is a part of a whole, called by us _universe_, a part limited in time and space. He experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings as something separated from the rest... a kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty."
"Not everything that counts can be counted, and not everything that can be counted counts." (Sign hanging in nstn's office at Princeton)

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Constipation, costiveness, or irregularity, is a condition of the digestive system in which a person (or animal) experiences hard feces that are difficult to expel. This usually happens because the colon absorbs too much water from the food. If the food moves through the gastro-intestinal tract too slowly, the colon may absorb too much water, resulting in feces that are dry and hard. Defecation may be extremely painful, and in severe cases (fecal impaction) lead to symptoms of bowel obstruction. The term obstipation is used for severe constipation that prevents passage of both stools and gas. Causes of constipation may be dietary, hormonal, anatomical, a side effect of medications (e.g. some painkillers), or an illness or disorder. Treatments consist of changes in dietary and exercise habits, the use of laxatives, and other medical interventions depending on the underlying cause.


Types 1 and 2 on the Bristol Stool Chart indicate constipationIn common constipation, the stool is hard, difficult, and painful to pass. Usually, there is an infrequent urge to void. Straining to pass stool may cause hemorrhoids and anal fissures, which are painful in themselves. In later stages of constipation, the abdomen may become distended and diffusely tender and crampy, occasionally with enhanced bowel sounds.

The definition of constipation includes the following:[1]

infrequent bowel movements (typically three times or fewer per week)
difficulty during defecation (straining during more than 25% of bowel movements or a subjective sensation of hard stools), or
the sensation of incomplete bowel evacuation.
Severe cases ("fecal impaction") may feature symptoms of bowel obstruction (vomiting, very tender abdomen) and "paradoxical diarrhea", where soft stool from the small intestine bypasses the impacted matter in the colon.


[edit] Diagnosis
The diagnosis is essentially made from the patient's description of the symptoms. Bowel movements that are difficult to pass, very firm, or made up of small rabbit-like pellets qualify as constipation, even if they occur every day. Other symptoms related to constipation can include bloating, distention, abdominal pain, or a sense of incomplete emptying.[2]

Inquiring about dietary habits may reveal a low intake of dietary fiber or inadequate amounts of fluids. Constipation as a result of poor ambulation or immobility should be considered in the elderly. Constipation may arise as a side effect of medications (especially antidepressants and opiates).[citation needed] Rarely, other symptoms suggestive of hypothyroidism may be elicited.[citation needed]

During physical examination, scybala (manually palpable lumps of stool) may be detected on palpation of the abdomen. Rectal examination gives an impression of the anal sphincter tone and whether the lower rectum contains any feces or not; if so, then suppositories or enemas may be considered. Otherwise, oral medication may be required. Rectal examination also gives information on the consistency of the stool, presence of hemorrhoids, admixture of blood and whether any tumors or abnormalities are present.

X-rays of the abdomen, generally only performed on hospitalized patients or if bowel obstruction is suspected, may reveal impacted fecal matter in the colon, and confirm or rule out other causes of similar symptoms.

Chronic constipation (symptoms present for more than 3 months at l 3 days per month) associated with abdominal discomfort is often diagnosed as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) when no obvious cause is found. Physicians caring for patients with chronic constipation are advised to rule out obvious causes through normal testing.[3]

Colonic propagating pressure wave sequences (PSs) are responsible for discrete movements of content and are vital for normal defaecation. Deficiencies in PS frequency, amplitude and extent of propagation are all implicated in severe defecatory dysfunction. Mechanisms that can normalise these aberrant motor patterns may help rectify the problem. Recently the novel therapy of sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) has been utilized for the treatment of severe constipation. [4]


[edit] Causes
The main causes of constipation include:

Hardening of the feces
Improper mastication (chewing) of food
Insufficient intake of dietary fiber
Dehydration from any cause or inadequate fluid intake
Medication, e.g. diuretics and those containing iron, calcium, aluminum
Paralysis or slowed transit, where peristaltic action is diminished or absent, so that feces are not moved along
Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid gland)
Hypokalemia
Injured anal sphincter (patulous anus)
Medications, such as loperamide, opioids (e.g. codne & morphine) and certain tricyclic antidepressants
Severe illness due to other causes
Acute porphyria (a rare inherited condition)
Lead poisoning
Dyschezia (usually the result of suppressing defecation)
Constriction, where part of the intestine or rectum is narrowed or blocked, not allowing feces to pass
Stenosis (Strictures)
Diverticula
Tumors, ther of the bowel or surrounding tissues
Obstructed defecation, due to:
Mechanical causes from morphological abnormalities of the anorectum including megarectum, rectal prolapse, rectocele, and enterocele
Functional causes from neurological disorders and dysfunction of the pelvic floor muscles or anorectal muscles, including anismus, descending perineum syndrome, and Hirschsprung's disease
Retained forgn body or a bezoar
Psychosomatic constipation, based on anxiety or unfamiliarity with surroundings.
Functional constipation
Constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome, characterized by a combination of constipation and abdominal discomfort and/or pain[5]
Smoking cessation (nicotine has a laxative effect)[6]
Abdominal surgery, other types of surgery, childbirth

[edit] Treatment
In people without medical problems, the main intervention is to increase the intake of fluids (preferably water) and dietary fiber. The latter may be achieved by consuming more vegetables and fruit and whole meal bread, and pulses such as baked beans and chick peas and by adding linseeds to one's diet. The routine non-medical use of laxatives is to be discouraged as this may result in bowel action becoming dependent upon thr use. Enemas can be used to provide a form of mechanical stimulation. However, enemas are generally useful only for stool in the rectum, not in the intestinal tract.

Lactulose, a non absorbable synthetic sugar that keeps sodium and water inside the intestinal lumen, relieves constipation. It can be used for months together. Among the other safe remedies, fiber supplements, lactitiol, sorbitol, milk of magnesia, lubricants etc. may be of value. Electrolyte imbalance e.g. Hyponatremia may occur in some cases especially in diabetics.

In alternative and traditional medicine, colonic irrigation, enemas, exercise, diet and herbs are used to treat constipation. The mechanism of the herbal, enema, and colonic irrigation treatments often include the breakdown of impacted and hardened fecal matter.


[edit] Laxatives
Main article: laxative
Laxatives may be necessary in people in whom dietary intervention is not effective or is inappropriate. Most laxatives can be safely used long-term, although some are associated with cramping and bloatedness and can cause the phenomenon of melanosis coli.


[edit] Physical intervention
Constipation that resists all the above measures requires physical intervention. Manual disimpaction (the physical removal of impacted stool) is done for those patients who have lost control of thr bowels secondary to spinal injuries. Manual disimpaction is also used by physicians and nurses to relieve rectal impactions. Finally, manual disimpaction can occasionally be done under sedation or a general anesthetic—this avoids pain and loosens the anal sphincter.

Many of the products are widely available over-the-counter. Enemas and clysters are a remedy occasionally used for hospitalized patients in whom the constipation has proven to be severe, dangerous in other ways, or resistant to laxatives. Sorbitol, glycerin and arachis oil suppositories can be used. Severe cases may require phosphate solutions introduced as enemas.


[edit] Prevention
Constipation is usually easier to prevent than to treat. The relief of constipation with osmotic agents, i.e. lactulose, polyethylene glycol (PEG), or magnesium salts, should immediately be followed with prevention using increased fiber (fruits, vegetables, and grains) and a nightly decreasing dose of osmotic laxative. With continuing narcotic use, for instance, nightly doses of osmotic agents can be given indefinitely (without harm) to cause a daily bowel movement.

Recent controlled studies have questioned the role of physical exercise in the prevention and management of chronic constipation, while exercise is often recommended by published materials on the subject.[7]


In various conditions (such as the use of codne or morphine), combinations of hydrating (e.g. lactulose or glycols), bulk-forming (e.g. psyllium) and stimulant agents may be necessary to prevent constipation.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Newton's laws of motion describe the acceleration of massive particles. In modern language, the laws may be stated as:

First law
It is possible to select a set of reference frames, called inertial reference frames, observed from which a particle moves without any change in velocity if no net force acts on it. This law is often simplified into the sentence "A particle will stay at rest or continue at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force."
Second law
Observed from an inertial reference frame, the net force on a particle is proportional to the time rate of change of its linear momentum: F = d (mv) / dt.[3][4][5][6][7] Momentum mv is the product of mass and velocity. Force and momentum are vector quantities and the resultant force is found from all the forces present by vector addition. This law is often stated as "F = ma: the net force on an object is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by its acceleration."
Third law
Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another particle B, B simultaneously exerts a force on A with the same magnitude in the opposite direction. The strong form of the law further postulates that these two forces act along the same line. This law is often simplified into the sentence "Every action has an equal and opposite reaction."
In the given interpretation mass, acceleration, and, most importantly, force are assumed to be externally defined quantities. This is the most common, but not the only interpretation: one can consider the laws to be a definition of these quantities. Notice that the second law only holds when the observation is made from an inertial reference frame, and since an inertial reference frame is defined by the first law, asking a proof of the first law from the second law is a logical fallacy. At speeds approaching the speed of light the effects of special relativity must be taken into account.[8]


[edit] Newton's first law: law of inertia
Lex I: Corpus omne perseverare in statu suo quiescendi vel movendi uniformiter in directum, nisi quatenus a viribus impressis cogitur statum illum mutare. Every body perseveres in its state of bng at rest or of moving uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by force impressed. Isaac Newton, The Principia, A new translation by I.B. Cohen and A. Whitman, University of California press, Berkeley 1999This law is also called the law of inertia. This is often paraphrased as "zero net force implies zero acceleration", but this is an over-simplification. As formulated by Newton, the first law is more than a special case of the second law. Newton arranged his laws in hierarchical order for good reason (for example, see Gailili & Tstlin[9], or Woodhouse[10]). The significance of the first law is to establish frames of reference for which the other laws are applicable, such frames bng called inertial frames. To understand why the laws are restricted to inertial frames, consider a ball at rest within an accelerating body: an airplane on a runway will suffice for this example. From the perspective of anyone within the airplane (that is, from the airplane's frame of reference when put in technical terms) the ball will appear to move backwards as the plane accelerates forwards (the same feeling as bng pushed back into your seat as the plane accelerates). This motion appears to contradict Newton's second law as, from the point of view of the passengers, there appears to be no force acting on the ball that would cause it to move. The reason why there is in fact no contradiction to the second law is because Newton's second law (without modification) is not applicable in this situation: Newton's first law does not apply because the stationary ball does not remain stationary. Thus, it is important to establish whether the various laws are applicable or not, inasmuch as they are not applicable in all situations.[11] and Avicenna.[12] The 17th century philosopher René Descartes also formulated the law, although he did not perform any experiments to confirm it. There are no perfect demonstrations of the law, as friction usually causes a force to act on a moving body, and even in outer space gravitational forces act and cannot be shielded against, but the law serves to emphasize the elementary causes of changes in an object's state of motion. Moreover, there are some subtleties related to identifying a condition of zero net force.


[edit] Newton's second law: law of resultant force
Lex II: Mutationem motus proportionalem esse vi motrici impressae, et fieri secundum lineam rectam qua vis illa imprimitur. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction.

In Motte's 1729 translation (from Newton's Latin), the second law of motion reads:[13]

LAW II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed. — If a force generates a motion, a double force will generate double the motion, a triple force triple the motion, whether that force be impressed altogether and at once, or gradually and successively. And this motion (bng always directed the same way with the generating force), if the body moved before, is added to or subtracted from the former motion, according as they directly conspire with or are directly contrary to each other; or obliquely joined, when they are oblique, so as to produce a new motion compounded from the determination of both.

Using modern symbolic notation, Newton's second law can be written as a vector differential equation:


where:

is the force vector
is mass
is the velocity vector
is time.
The product of the mass and velocity is the momentum of the object (which Newton himself called "quantity of motion"). It should be noted that, as is consistent with the law of inertia, the time derivative of the momentum is non-zero when the momentum changes direction, even if there is no change in its magnitude. See time derivative.[14]

If the mass of the object in question is constant this differential equation can be rewritten as:


where:

is the acceleration.
A verbal equivalent of this is "the acceleration of an object is proportional to the force applied, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object". If momentum varies nonlinearly with velocity (as it does for high velocities—see special relativity), then this last version is not accurate.


[edit] Impulse
The term impulse is closely related to the second law, and historically speaking is closer to the original meaning of the law.[15]The meaning of an impulse is as follows:[16][17]

An impulse occurs when a force F acts over an interval of time Δt and is given by .
The words motive force were used by Newton to describe "impulse" and motion to describe momentum; consequently, a historically closer reading of the second law describes the relation between impulse and change of momentum. That is, a mathematical rendering of the original wording resembles a finite difference version of the second law, rather than a differential version.

The analysis of collisions and impacts uses the impulse concept.[18]


[edit] Relativity
Taking special relativity into consideration, the law of resultant force can be put in terms of acceleration as follows:[19]

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Early views on the function of the brain regarded it as little more than cranial stuffing. In Ancient Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, in preparation for mummification, the brain was regularly removed, for it was the heart that was assumed to be the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus, during the first step of mummification, "The most perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs." Over the next five-thousand years, this view came to be reversed; the brain is now known to be seat of intelligence, although idiomatic variations of the former remain, as in "memorizing something by heart".[1]

The first thoughts on the field of psychology came from ancient philosophers, such as Aristotle. As thinkers became more in tune with biomedical research over time, as was the case with medieval psychologists such as Alhazen and Avicenna for example, the concepts of experimental psychology and clinical psychology began emerging. From that point, different branches of psychology emerged with different individuals creating new ideas, with modern psychologists such as Freud and Jung contributing to the field.


[edit] Mind and brain
This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)
Mind and Brain portal
The mind-body problem is one of the central problems in the history of philosophy. The brain is the physical and biological matter contained within the skull, responsible for electrochemical neuronal processes. The mind, in contrast, consists in mental attributes, such as beliefs, desires, perceptions, and so on. There are scientifically demonstrable correlations between mental events and neuronal events; the philosophical question is whether these phenomena are identical, at l partially distinct, or related in some other way.

Philosophical positions on the mind-body problem fall into two main categories. The first category is dualism, according to which the mind exists independently of the brain. Dualist theories are further divided into substance dualism and property dualism. René Descartes is perhaps the most prominent substance dualist, while property dualism is more popular among contemporary dualists like David Chalmers. Dualism requires admitting non-physical substances or properties into ontology, which is in apparent conflict with the scientific world view. The second category is materialism, according to which mental phenomena are identical to neuronal phenomena. A third category of view, idealism, claims that only mental substances and phenomena exist. This view, most prominently held by 18th century Irish philosopher Bishop George Berkeley, has few contemporary adherents.


[edit] Comparative anatomy

A mouse brain.Three groups of animals have notably complex brains: the arthropods (insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and others), the cephalopods (octopuses, squids, and similar mollusks), and the craniates (vertebrates and hagfish).[2] The brain of arthropods and cephalopods arises from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing.[2]

The brain of craniates develops from the anterior section of a single dorsal nerve cord, which later becomes the spinal cord.[3] In craniates, the brain is protected by the bones of the skull.

Mammals have a six-layered neocortex (or homotypic cortex, neopallium), in addition to having some parts of the brain that are allocortex.[3] In mammals, increasing convolutions of the brain are characteristic of animals with more advanced brains. These convolutions provide a larger surface area for a greater number of neurons while keeping the volume of the brain compact enough to fit inside the skull. The folding allows more grey matter to fit into a smaller volume. The folds are called sulci, while the spaces between the folds are called gyri.

In birds, the part of the brain that functionally corresponds to the neocortex is called nidopallium and derives from a different part of the brain. Some birds (like corvids and parrots), are thought by some to have high intelligence, but even in these, the brain region that forms the mammalian neocortex is in fact almost entirely absent. Thus the term Birdbrain.

Although the general histology of the brain is similar from person to person, the structural anatomy can differ. Apart from the gross embryological divisions of the brain, the location of specific gyri and sulci, primary sensory regions, and other structures differs between species.


[edit] Insects
In insects, the brain has four parts, the optic lobes, the protocerebrum, the deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. The optic lobes are behind each eye and process visual stimuli.[2] The protocerebrum contains the mushroom bodies, which respond to smell, and the central body complex. In some species such as bees, the mushroom body recves input from the visual pathway as well. The deutocerebrum includes the antennal lobes, which are similar to the mammalian olfactory bulb, and the mechanosensory neuropils which recve information from touch receptors on the head and antennae. The antennal lobes of flies and moths are quite complex.


[edit] Cephalopods
In cephalopods, the brain has two regions: the supraesophageal mass and the subesophageal mass,[2] separated by the esophagus. The supra- and subesophageal masses are connected to each other on ther side of the esophagus by the basal lobes and the dorsal magnocellular lobes.[2] The large optic lobes are sometimes not considered to be part of the brain, as they are anatomically separate and are joined to the brain by the optic stalks. However, the optic lobes perform much visual processing, and so functionally are part of the brain.


[edit] Mammals and other vertebrates
The telencephalon (cerebrum) is the largest region of the mammalian brain. This is the structure that is most easily visible in brain specimens, and is what most people associate with the "brain". In humans and several other animals, the fissures (sulci) and convolutions (gyri) give the brain a wrinkled appearance. In non-mammalian vertebrates with no cerebrum, the metencephalon is the highest center in the brain. Because humans walk upright, there is a flexure, or bend, in the brain between the brain stem and the cerebrum. Other vertebrates do not have this flexure. Generally, comparing the locations of certain brain structures between humans and other vertebrates often reveals a number of differences.

Behind (or in humans, below) the cerebrum is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is known to be involved in the control of movement,[3] and is connected by thick white matter fibers (cerebellar peduncles) to the pons.[4] The cerebrum has two cerebral hemispheres. The cerebellum also has hemispheres. The telencephalic hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum, another large white matter tract. An outgrowth of the telencephalon called the olfactory bulb is a major structure in many animals, but in humans and other primates it is relatively small.

Vertebrate nervous systems are distinguished by bilaterally symmetrical encephalization. Encephalization refers to the tendency for more complex organisms to gain larger brains through evolutionary time. Larger vertebrates develop a complex, layered and interconnected neuronal circuitry. In modern species most closely related to the first vertebrates, brains are covered with gray matter that has a three-layer structure (allocortex). Thr brains also contain deep brain nucl and fiber tracts forming the white matter. Most regions of the human cerebral cortex have six layers of neurons (neocortex).[4]


[edit] Vertebrate brain regions
(See related article at List of regions in the human brain)


Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain. These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures.According to the hierarchy based on embryonic and evolutionary development, chordate brains are composed of the three regions that later develop into five total divisions:

Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
Myelencephalon
Metencephalon
Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Prosencephalon (forebrain)
Diencephalon
Telencephalon
The brain can also be classified according to function, including divisions such as:

Limbic system
Sensory systems
Visual system
Olfactory system
Gustatory system
Auditory system
Somatosensory system
Motor system
Associative areas
In recent years it was realized that certain birds have developed high intelligence entirely convergently from mammals such as humans. Hence, the functional areas of the avian brain have been redefined by the Avian Brain Nomenclature Consortium. See also Bird intelligence

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Albert nstn (German: IPA: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n] (Audio file) (help·info); English: IPA: /ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn/) (March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He is best known for his theory of relativity and specifically mass–energy equivalence, E = mc 2. nstn recved the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect."[1]

nstn's many contributions to physics include his special theory of relativity, which reconciled mechanics with electromagnetism, and his general theory of relativity, which extended the principle of relativity to non-uniform motion, creating a new theory of gravitation. His other contributions include relativistic cosmology, capillary action, critical opalescence, classical problems of statistical mechanics and thr application to quantum theory, an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules, atomic transition probabilities, the quantum theory of a monatomic gas, thermal properties of light with low radiation density (which laid the foundation for the photon theory), a theory of radiation including stimulated emission, the conception of a unified field theory, and the geometrization of physics.

nstn published over 300 scientific works and over 150 non-scientific works.[2][3] nstn is revered by the physics community,[4] and in 1999 Time magazine named him the "Person of the Century". In wider culture the name "nstn" has become synonymous with genius.



[edit] Youth and schooling
Albert nstn was born into a Jewish family in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany on March 14, 1879. His father was Hermann nstn, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline nstn (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded a company, Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. nstn & Cie, that manufactured electrical equipment.

The nstns were not observant of Jewish religious practices, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school. Although nstn had early speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school.[5][6]


Albert nstn in 1893 (age 14), taken before the family moved to ItalyWhen nstn was five, his father showed him a pocket compass. nstn realized that something in empty space was moving the needle and later stated that this experience made "a deep and lasting impression".[7] At his mother's insistence, he took violin lessons starting at age six, and although he disliked them and eventually quit, he later took great pleasure in Mozart's violin sonatas. As he grew, nstn built models and mechanical devices for fun, and began to show a talent for mathematics.

In 1889, family friend Max Talmud, a medical student,[8] introduced the ten-year-old nstn to key science, mathematics, and philosophy texts, including Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (nstn called it the "holy little geometry book").[8] From Euclid, nstn began to understand deductive reasoning, and by the age of twelve, he had learned Euclidean geometry. Soon thereafter he began to investigate calculus.

In his early teens, nstn attended the progressive Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but nstn clashed with authorities and resented the school regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning.

In 1894, when nstn was fifteen, his father's business failed, and the nstn family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, after a few months, to Pavia. During this time, nstn wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields".[9] nstn had been left behind in Munich to finish high school, but in the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.

Rather than completing high school, nstn decided to apply directly to the ETH Zurich, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, Switzerland. Lacking a school certificate, he was required to take an entrance examination, which he did not pass, although he got exceptional marks in mathematics and physics.[10] nstn wrote that it was in that same year, at age 16, that he first performed his famous thought experiment visualizing traveling alongside a beam of light (nstn 1979).

The nstns sent Albert to Aarau, Switzerland to finish secondary school. While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with the family's daughter, Marie. (Albert's sister Maja later married Paul Winteler.)[11] In Aarau, nstn studied Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. In 1896, he graduated at age 17, renounced his German citizenship to avoid military service (with his father's approval), and finally enrolled in the mathematics program at ETH. Marie moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.

In 1896, nstn's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at ETH, as the only woman studying mathematics. During the next few years, nstn and Marić's friendship developed into romance. nstn graduated in 1900 from ETH with a degree in physics.[12] That same year, nstn's friend Michele Besso introduced him to the work of Ernst Mach. The next year, nstn published a paper in the prestigious Annalen der Physik on the capillary forces of a straw (nstn 1901). On February 21, 1901, he gained Swiss citizenship, which he never revoked.[13]


[edit] Patent office

The 'nstnhaus' on the Kramgasse in Berne where nstn lived with Mileva on the first floor during his Annus MirabilisFollowing graduation, nstn could not find a teaching post. After almost two years of searching, a former classmate's father helped him get a job in Berne, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property,[14] the patent office, as an assistant examiner. His responsibility was evaluating patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, nstn's position at the Swiss Patent Office was made permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[15]

With friends he met in Berne, nstn formed a weekly discussion club on science and philosophy, jokingly named "The Olympia Academy". Thr readings included Poincaré, Mach, and Hume, who influenced nstn's scientific and philosophical outlook.[16]

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Born in New York City, Hilton is the oldest of four children of Richard and Kathy Hilton (née Avanzino). She has a sister, Nicky, and brothers, Barron and Conrad.

On the maternal side of her family, she is a niece of two child stars of the 1970s, Kim Richards and Kyle Richards. Hilton was related by marriage to Nicole Richie's godmother, Nancy Davis, when Nancy's brother, Greg, was married to Kim Richards.

Hilton's paternal grandparents are hotel chairman Barron Hilton, and his wife, the former Marilyn Hawley; Barron Hilton's parents were Hilton Hotels founder Conrad Hilton and his first wife, Mary Barron.

Hilton moved between several exclusive homes in her youth, including a suite in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in Manhattan, Beverly Hills, and the Hamptons. She attended her freshman year of high school at the Marywood-Palm Valley School in Rancho Mirage, California and then the Dwight School in New York for her sophomore and junior years. She was then transferred to the Canterbury School, in New Milford, Connecticut where she was a member of the hockey team. However, in early 1999, she was expelled for violating the school rules.[3] Hilton later earned her GED.[4][5]

In December 2007, Hilton's grandfather Barron Hilton pledged 97 percent of his estate to a charitable organization founded by his father, the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation. An immediate pledge of $1.2 billion was made, with a further $1.1 billion due after his death. He cited his father's actions as the motivation for his pledge. According to reports, the potential inheritance of his grandchildren is sharply diminished.[6][7]


Career
Hilton has worked as a model, actress, musician, and engaged in sometime business pursuits.[8] According to Forbes Magazine, she earned approximately $2 million in 2003–2004,[9] $6.5 million in 2004–2005,[10] and $7 million in 2005–2006.[11]


As a model
Hilton began modeling as a child, initially at charity events.[12] When she was 19, she signed with Donald Trump's modeling agency, T Management.[12] Hilton has also worked with Ford Models in New York, Models 1 Agency in London, Nous Model Management in Los Angeles, and Premier Model Management in London. She has appeared in numerous advertising campaigns, including Iceberg Vodka, GUESS, Tommy Hilfiger, Christian Dior, and Marciano. In 2001, Hilton began to develop a reputation as a socialite, bng identified as "New York's leading It Girl" whose fame was beginning to "extend beyond the New York tabloids".[12] She has appeared in several magazines, including the April 2004 issue of Maxim.[13]


As an actress

Film
Hilton has made cameo appearances in several films, notably Zoolander (2001), Wonderland (2003), and The Cat In The Hat (2003). She landed minor and supporting roles in the feature films Nine Lives (2002), Raising Helen (2004), The Hillz (2004), and House of Wax (2005). Her role as Paige Edwards in House of Wax won the Teen Choice Award for "Best Scream" and earned her a nomination for "Choice Breakout Performance – Female".[14] (It also won her the 2005 Razzie for "Worst Supporting Actress" at the 2005 Golden Raspberry Awards.)[15] She also earned a nomination for "Best Frightened Performance" at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards. She landed her first lead roles in 2006 with the straight-to-DVD releases National Lampoon's Pledge This! and Bottoms Up. She plays the Hottie in a romantic comedy called The Hottie and the Nottie, released in 2008. As of August 2007, Hilton is part of the cast of Repo! the Genetic Opera, which began filming in September 2007.[16] Four of Paris' films are rated in the IMDb bottom 100. These are; The Hillz (rated 23rd worst), Bottom's Up (33rd), Pledge This! (11th) and The Hottie and the Nottie (14th)


Television
Hilton co-starred with Nicole Richie in the Fox reality series The Simple Life, which premiered on December 2, 2003. The Simple Life ran for three seasons on Fox. The show was cancelled by Fox after a dispute between Hilton and Richie, but it was subsequently aired by E! Entertainment Television for the fourth and fifth seasons.[17] Despite talks of a sixth season,[18] the series finished its run at the end of the fifth season.[19] In March 2008, it was reported that Hilton would star in a new MTV reality series tentatively titled "Paris Hilton's My New BFF", about her looking for a new best friend.[20] The series is to run for ten episodes from October to December, 2008.[21]

Hilton has also guest-starred in episodes of The O.C., The George Lopez Show, Las Vegas, American Dreams and Veronica Mars. Furthermore, she appeared in several music videos, including "It Girl" by John Oates and "Just Lose It" by Eminem. Planning is underway for an eponymous cartoon series following the animated life of Hilton, her sister Nicky, and her dog Tinkerbell.[22] , which began filming in September 2007. In April 2008, she guest starred on the My Name is Earl episode I Won't Die with a Little Help from My Friends.[23]


As a recording artist
Further information: Hress Records and Paris (Paris Hilton album)

Paris (2006).Hilton founded Hress Records, a sub-label of Warner Bros. Records, in 2004 and released her self-titled debut album, Paris, under that label on August 22, 2006. Although the album reached number six on the Billboard 200 for a week, its total sales volume has been low.[24][25] Allmusic commented that the album was "more fun than anything released by Britney Spears or Jessica Simpson, and a lot fresher, too." On the whole, critical reception was mixed.[26] On July 16, 2007 Hilton confirmed that she was working on a new album with producer Scott Storch.[27][28][29] In a recent interview with MTV, Hilton decided that her second album is going to be a dance album. She stated that she "loves Bob Sinclair" and wants to create dance-music vibe. Hilton has installed a professional recording studio in her house to work on the album.[30] At a meet and greet in Montreal, Hilton stated that her album is to be released sometime in 2008.[31]


As an author
Further information: Confessions of an Hress: A Tongue-in-Chic Peek Behind the Pose and Your Hress Diary: Confess It All to Me
In the autumn of 2004, Hilton released an autobiographical book, Confessions of an Hress: A Tongue-in-Chic Peek Behind the Pose, co-written by Merle Ginsberg, which includes full color photographs of her and her advice on life as an hress. Hilton reportedly recved a $100,000 advance payment for this book. Some in the media panned the writing as amateurish, and the book was parodied by Robert Mundell on The Late Show with David Letterman. The book became a New York Times bestseller. Hilton followed it up with a designer diary, also with Ginsberg, called Your Hress Diary: Confess It All to Me.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Friendship is a term used to denote co-operative and supportive behavior between two or more bngs. This article focuses on the notion specific to interpersonal relationships. In this sense, the term connotes a relationship which involves mutual knowledge, esteem, and affection along with a degree of rendering service to friends in times of need or crisis. Friends will welcome each other's company and exhibit loyalty towards each other, often to the point of altruism. Thr tastes will usually be similar and may converge, and they will share enjoyable activities. They will also engage in mutually helping behavior, such as exchange of advice and the sharing of hardship. A friend is someone who may often demonstrate reciprocating and reflective behaviors. Yet for many, friendship is nothing more than the trust that someone or something will not harm them. Value that is found in friendships is often the result of a friend demonstrating the following on a consistent basis:

the tendency to desire what is best for the other,
sympathy and empathy,
honesty, perhaps in situations where it may be difficult for others to speak the truth, especially in terms of pointing out the percved faults of one's counterpart
mutual understanding.

Super Friends. Friendships are often the most important relationships in the emotional life of the adolescent, and are often more intense than relationships later in life.In a comparison of personal relationships, friendship is considered to be closer than association, although there is a range of degrees of intimacy in both friendships and associations. Friendship and association can be thought of as spanning across the same continuum. The study of friendship is included in sociology, anthropology, philosophy, and zoology. Various theories of friendship have been proposed, among which are social psychology, social exchange theory, equity theory, relational dialectics, and attachment styles. See Interpersonal relationships

Friendship is considered one of the central human experiences, and has been sanctified by all major religions. The Epic of Gilgamesh, a Babylonian poem that is among the earliest known literary works in history, chronicles in great depth the friendship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu. The Greco-Roman had, as a paramount example, the friendship of Orestes and Pylades. The Abrahamic faiths have the story of David and Jonathan. Friendship played an important role in German Romanticism. A good example for this is Schiller's Die Bürgschaft. The Christian Gospels state that Jesus Christ declared, "No one has greater love than this, to lay down one's life for one's friends."(John 15:13).

In philosophy, Aristotle is known for his discussion (in the Nicomachean Ethics) of philia, which is usually (somewhat misleadingly) translated as "friendship," and certainly includes friendship, though is a much broader concept.

Cultural variations: (stub-section) A group of friends consists of two or more people who are in a mutually pleasing relationship engendering a sentiment of camaraderie, exclusivity, and mutual trust. There are varying degrees of "closeness" between friends. Hence, some people choose to differentiate and categorize friendships based on this sentiment.


[edit] Greece
In Ancient Greece, in Plato's Symposium, a character named Pausanius asserts: "the interests of rulers require that thr subjects should be poor in spirit, and that there should be no strong bond of friendship or society among them, which love, above all other motives, is likely to inspire, as our Athenian tyrants learned by experience; for the love of Aristogton and the constancy of Harmodius had a strength which undid thr power." (Symposium; 182c). The overall tone of The Symposium stresses the importance of asceticism and spiritual love over lust. Critics have long had difficulty interpreting the various opinions outlined in The Symposium, and generally agree that Plato's view is prescriptive rather than descriptive. Nevertheless, the speech of Pausanius provides evidence for pederasty in 5th century Athens.

For Aristotle's position, see Philia.


[edit] Rome
During the time of the Roman Empire, Cicero had his own beliefs on friendship. Cicero believed that in order to have a true friendship with someone there must be all honesty and truth. If there isn’t, then this isn’t a true friendship. In that case, friends must be one hundred percent honest with each other and put one hundred percent of thr trust in the other person. Cicero also believed that for people to be friends with another person, they must do things without the expectation that thr friend will have to repay them. He also believes that if a friend is about to do something wrong, and something that goes against your morals, you shouldn’t compromise your morals. You must explain why what they are going to do is wrong, and help them to see what the right thing to do is, because Cicero believes that ignorance is the cause of evil. Finally the last thing that Cicero believed was that the reason that a friendship comes to an end is because one person in that friendship has become bad. (On Friendship, Cicero)


[edit] Russia
The relationship is constructed differently in different cultures. In Russia, for example, one typically accords very few people the status of "friend". These friendships however make up in intensity what they lack in number. Friends are entitled to call each other by thr first names alone, and to use diminutives. A norm of polite behaviour is addressing "acquaintances" by full first name plus patronymic. These could include relationships which elsewhere would be qualified as real friendships, such as workplace relationships of long standing, nghbors with whom one shares an occasional meal and visit, and so on. Physical contact between friends is expected, and friends, whether or not of the same sex, will embrace, sometimes kiss and walk in public with thr arms around each other, or arm-in-arm, or hand-in-hand.

According to Oleg Kharkhordin in a paper on the politics of friendship, in Soviet society, friendships were "a suspect value for the Stalinist regime" in that they presented a stronger allegiance that could stand in possible opposition to allegiance to the Communist party. "By definition, a friend was an individual who would not let you down even under direct menace to him- or herself; a person to whom one could securely entrust one's controversial thoughts since he or she would never betray them, even under pressure. Friendship thus in a sense became an ultimate value produced in resistance struggles in the Soviet Union". [1]


[edit] Asia
In the Middle and Central Asia male friendships, while less restricted than in Russia, tend also to be reserved and respectable in nature.


[edit] Modern west
In the Western world, intimate physical contact has been sexualized in the public mind over the last one hundred years and is considered almost taboo in friendship, especially between two males. However, stylized hugging or kissing may be considered acceptable, depending on the context (see, for example, the kiss the tramp gives the kid in The Kid). In Spain and other Mediterranean countries men may embrace each other in public and kiss each other on the cheek. This is not limited solely to older generations but rather is present throughout all generations. In young children throughout the modern western world, friendship, usually of a homosocial nature, typically exhibits elements of a closeness and intimacy suppressed later in life in order to conform to societal standards.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

The term gentleman (from Latin gentilis, belonging to a race or "gens", and "man", cognate with the French word gentilhomme and the Italian gentil uomo or gentiluomo), in its original and strict signification, denoted a man of good family, analogous to the Latin generosus (its invariable translation in English-Latin documents). In this sense the word equates with the French gentilhomme (nobleman), which latter term was in Great Britain long confined to the peerage. The term "gentry" (from the Old French genterise for gentelise) has much of the social class significance of the French noblesse or of the German Adel, but without the strict technical requirements of those traditions (such as quarters of nobility). This was what the rebels under John Ball in the 14th century meant when they repeated:

When Adam delved and Eve span,
Who was then the Gentleman? [1]
John Selden in Titles of Honour, (1614), discussing the title "gentleman", speaks of "our English use of it" as "convertible with nobilis" (an ambiguous word, like 'noble' meaning elevated ther by rank or by personal qualities) and describes in connection with it the forms of ennobling in various European countries.

To a degree, "gentleman" signified a man with an income derived from property, a legacy or some other source, and was thus independently wealthy and did not need to work. The term was particularly used of those who could not claim nobility or even the rank of esquire. Widening further, it became a politeness for all men, as in the phrase "Ladies and Gentlemen,..." and this was then used (often with the abbreviation Gents) to indicate where men could find a lavatory, without the need to indicate precisely what was bng described.

In modern speech, the term is usually democratised so as to include any man of good, courteous conduct, or even to all men (as in indications of gender-separated facilities).


[edit] Gentleman by conduct
Chaucer in the Meliboeus (circa 1386) says: "Certes he sholde not be called a gentil man, that ... ne dooth his diligence and bisynesse, to kepen his good name"; and in The Wife of Bath's Tale:

Loke who that is most vertuous alway
Prive and apert, and most entendeth ay
To do the gentil dedes that he can
And take him for the gretest gentilman
And in the Romance of the Rose (circa 1400) we find: "he is gentil bycause he doth as longeth to a gentilman".

This use develops through the centuries, until in 1714 we have Steele, in Tatler (No. 207), laying down that "the appellation of Gentleman is never to be affixed to a man's circumstances, but to his Behaviour in them", a limitation over-narrow even for the present day. In this connection, too, one may quote the old story, told by some—very improbably—of James II, of the monarch who replied to a lady petitioning him to make her son a gentleman, "I could make him a nobleman, but God Almighty could not make him a gentleman".

Selden, however, in referring to similar stories "that no Charter can make a Gentleman, which is cited as out of the mouth of some great Princes that have said it", adds that "they without question understood Gentleman for Generosus in the antient sense, or as if it came from Genii/is in that sense, as Gentilis denotes one of a noble Family, or indeed for a Gentleman by birth". For "no creation could make a man of another blood than he is".

The word "gentleman", used in the wide sense with which birth and circumstances have nothing to do, is necessarily incapable of strict definition. For "to behave like a gentleman" may mean little or much, according to the person by whom the phrase is used; "to spend money like a gentleman" may even be no great praise; but "to conduct a business like a gentleman" implies a high standard.


[edit] William Harrison
William Harrison, writing a century earlier, says "gentlemen be those whom thr race and blood, or at the l thr virtues, do make noble and known". A gentleman was in his time usually expected to have a coat of arms, it bng accepted that only a gentleman could have a coat of arms; and Harrison gives the following account of how gentlemen were made in Shakespeare's day:

Gentlemen whose ancestors are not known to come in with William duke of Normandy (for of the Saxon races yet remaining we now make none accompt, much less of the British issue) do take thr beginning in England after this manner in our times. Who soever studieth the laws of the realm, who so abideth in the university, giving his mind to his book, or professeth physic and the liberal sciences, or beside his service in the room of a captain in the wars, or good counsel given at home, whereby his commonwealth is benefited, can live without manual labour, and thereto is able and will bear the port, charge and countenance of a gentleman, he shall for money have a coat and arms bestowed upon him by heralds (who in the charter of the same do of custom pretend antiquity and service, and many gay things) and thereunto bng made so good cheap be called master, which is the title that men give to esquires and gentlemen, and reputed for a gentleman ever after. Which is so much the less to be disallowed of, for that the prince doth lose nothing by it, the gentleman bng so much subject to taxes and public payments as is the yeoman or husbandman, which he likewise doth bear the gladlier for the saving of his reputation. Bng called also to the wars (for with the government of the commonwealth he medleth little) what soever it cost him, he will both array and arm himself accordingly, and show the more manly courage, and all the tokens of the person which he representeth. No man hath hurt by it but himself, who peradventure will go in wider buskins than his legs will bear, or as our proverb saith, now and then bear a bigger sail than his boat is able to sustain.

[edit] Shakespeare
In this way Shakespeare himself was demonstrated, by the grant of his coat of arms, to be no "vagabond" but a gentleman. The inseparability of arms and gentility is shown by two of his characters:

Petruchio: I swear I'll cuff you if you strike again.
Katharine: So may you lose your arms: If you strike me, you are no gentleman;
And if no gentleman, why then no arms.
(The Taming of the Shrew, Act II Scene i.)
However, although only a gentleman could have a coat of arms (so that possession of a coat of arms was proof of gentility), the coat of arms recognised rather than created the status (see G D Squibb The High Court of Chivalry at pp 170-177). Thus, all armigers were gentlemen, but not all gentlemen were armigers. Hence Henry V, act IV, scene iii:

For he today that sheds his blood with me
Shall be my brother: be he ne'er so vile,
This day shall gentle his condition.
And gentlemen in England now abed
Shall think themselves accurs'd they were not here
And hold thr manhoods cheap whilst any speaks
That fought with us upon St. Crispin's Day.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Juliet:
"What's in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet."


Romeo and Juliet (II, ii, 1-2)
Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet meet and fall in love in Shakespeare's lyrical tale of "star-cross'd" lovers. They are doomed from the start as members of two warring families. Here Juliet tells Romeo that a name is an artificial and meaningless convention, and that she loves the person who is called "Montague", not the Montague name and not the Montague family. Romeo, out of his passion for Juliet, rejects his family name and vows, as Juliet asks, to "deny (his) father" and instead be "new baptized" as Juliet's lover. This one short line encapsulates the central struggle and tragedy of the play.

Macbeth:
To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,
To the last syllable of recorded time;
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle!
Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player,
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more. It is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.


Macbeth Act 5, scene 5, 19–28
After hearing that his wife has died, Macbeth takes stock of his own indifference to the event. Death—our return to dust—seems to him merely the last act of a very bad play, an idiot's tale full of bombast and melodrama ("sound and fury"), but without meaning ("signifying nothing"). Murdering King Duncan and szing his throne in retrospect seem like scenes of a script Macbeth was never suited to play. The idea that "all the world's a stage" is occasionally very depressing to Shakespeare's heroes.

"To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow"—along with the other phrases culled from this lode of Bardisms—conveys the mechanical beat of time as it carries this poor player-king from scene to scene. "The last syllable of recorded time"—what Macbeth earlier called "the crack of doom" [see p. 25]—casts time as a sequence of words, as in a script; history becomes a dramatic record. If life is like a bad play, it is thus an illusion, a mere shadow cast by a "brief candle." The candle is perhaps the soul, and the prospects for Macbeth's are grim.

Helena:
"Love looks not with the eyes but with the mind."


A Midsummer Night's Dream (I, i, 234)
In this soliloquy, Helena ponders the transforming power of love, noting that Cupid is blind. The lovesick Helena has been abandoned by her beloved Demetrius, because he loves the more attractive Hermia. Helena, while tall and fair, is not as lovely as Hermia. Helena finds it unfair that Demetrius dotes on Hermia's beauty, and she wishes appearances were contagious the way a sickness is so that she might look just like Hermia and win back Demetrius. The connection of love to eyesight and vision are matters of vital importance in this play about love and the confusion it sometimes brings.

Touchstone:
"We that are true lovers run into strange capers; but as all is mortal in nature, so is all nature in love mortal
in folly."


As You Like It (II, iv, 53-56)
The professional court jester, Touchstone, shifts from acknowledging mortality to accepting the "folly" of love in nature in this scene from the pastoral satire, As You Like It. The lovers in the play, who represent "nature in love," all display a kind of folly. Touchstone has accompanied the Duke's daughter, Celia, into the forest with her friend and cousin, Rosalind, each taking on a series of comedic turns. Shakespeare's use of the traditional figure of the Jester, with his social role and traditional meaning, enabled him to embody a character who could epitomize the comedy's purpose while maintaining objectivity. Touchstone, in effect, presents life as it really is, ridiculing it because it is not ideal, as we wish it to be.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Jetson is a fictional character who appears in the animated series The Jetsons. George is the husband of Jane Jetson and the father of teenage daughter Judy and elementary school aged son Elroy. George was also the grandson of Montahue Jetson, who would sometimes visit the family. George lived with his family in the Skypad Apartments in Orbit City, in a future with the traditional trappings of science fantasy depictions of American life in the future: robot servants, flying saucer-like cars, moving sidewalks, etc. Indeed, all the buildings were set on giant poles, and resembled Seattle, Washington's Space Needle; the ground almost never seen.

George was an employee at Spacely's Space Sprockets, a manufacturer of "sprockets" and other high tech equipment. His boss was Cosmo G. Spacely, who was noted for bng both short in hght and in temper, and usually treated his employees (particularly George) in a rather tyrannical fashion. George's job primarily required him to repeatedly push a single button (or on occasion a series of buttons) on a computer (named RUDI in the 1980s series of Jetsons episodes). Once George complained of his heavy work load-having to push a button for one hour for one day of the week! Often, Mr. Spacely would fire George in a fit of anger, only to hire him back by the end of the same episode.

Physically, George is a rather slim man of average hght with short red hair and a cartoonishly large nose. His personality was that of a well-meaning, caring father, but often was befuddled and stressed out by the problems of both his work and family lives. As The Jetsons was partially based on the comic strip Blondie, George himself was probably based on that strip's lead character, Dagwood Bumstead.[citation needed]

George's most famous catchphrase is "Jane! Stop this crazy thing!" seen at the end credits of the 1960s Jetsons episodes, but was also known for frequently uttering the phrase "Hooba-dooba-dooba!" to express wonder or astonishment.

George O'Hanlon was the voice actor who did George's voice in both the sixties and ghties version of the cartoon series. O'Hanlon last did the voice for George Jetson in Jetsons: The Movie, which was released posthumously.

The current voice of George Jetson is Jeff Bergman, who voiced George (and also Mr. Spacely) in some parts of the movie after O'Hanlon's death, and also voiced George for the cameo in the Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law episode "Shaggy Busted" and Spümcø's two Jetsons cartoons: Father & Son Day and The Best Son.

In the Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law episode "Back to the Present," George was voiced by Wally Wingert. In the episode, the Jetsons return to the past to sue the planet for causing global warming.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Beavers are best known for thr natural trait of building dams in rivers and streams, and building thr homes (known as beaver lodges) in the resulting pond. They are the second-largest rodent in the world (after the capybara).

They are also known for thr "danger signal": when startled or frightened, a swimming beaver will rapidly dive while forcefully slapping the water with its broad tail. This creates a loud 'slap', audible over large distances above and below water. This noise serves as a warning to other beavers in the area. Once a beaver has made this danger signal, all nearby beavers will dive and may not reemerge for some time. Although this happens rarely, a frightened beaver may attack a human.[1]


Beaver tracks in snow, in Ontario. Hind paws approx. 20 cm (7.9 in) long.Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other superficial deposits of England and the continent of Europe; while in the Plstocene formations of England and Siberia occur remains of a giant extinct beaver, Trogontherium cuvieri, representing a genus by itself.

Beavers have webbed hind-feet, and a broad, scaly tail. They have poor eyesight, but keen senses of hearing, smell, and touch.


Beaver swimmingBeavers continue to grow throughout life. Adult specimens wghing over 25 kg (55 lb) are not uncommon. Females are as large as or larger than males of the same age, which is uncommon among mammals.


[edit] Etymology
The word is descended from the Proto-Indo-European name of the animal, cf. Sanskrit babhru's, brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. fiber, Ger. Biber, Swed. bäver, Russ. bobr'; the root bhru has given "brown," and, through Romanic, "bronze" and "burnish."[2]


[edit] Species
Beavers are closely related to squirrels (Sciuridae), agreng in certain structural peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull. In the Sciuridae the two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower half of the leg are quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the habitats are arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or Castoridae these bones are in close contact at thr lower ends, the tail is depressed, expanded and scaly, and thr habitats are aquatic.[2]

Both European and American beavers grow to about 2 ft (0.61 m) long (plus 10 in (250 mm) of tail). They are essentially aquatic in thr habits, never travelling by land unless driven by necessity. They are crepuscular rather than nocturnal, which means they are active at dawn and dusk,[3] and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the roots of water plants. They have also been known to eat grasses on the banks of rivers and streams.


[edit] European Beaver
Main article: European Beaver

A European BeaverThe European Beaver (Castor fiber) was hunted almost to extinction in Europe, both for fur and for castoreum, a secretion of its scent gland believed to have medicinal properties. However, the beaver is now bng re-introduced throughout Europe. Several thousand live on the Elbe, the Rhone and in parts of Scandinavia. A thriving community lives in north Poland, and the European Beaver also returned to the Morava River banks in Slovakia and the Czech Republic. They have been rntroduced in Scotland[4], Bavaria, Austria, The Netherlands and Serbia (Zasavica bog) and are spreading to new locations.

The beaver became extinct in Great Britain in the sixteenth century: Giraldus Cambrensis reported in 1188 (Itinerarium ii.iii) that it was to be found only in the Tfi in Wales and in one river in Scotland, though his observations are clearly first hand. In October 2005, six European beavers were re-introduced to Britain in Lower Mill Estate in Gloucestershire; in July 2007 a colony of four European beavers was established at Martin Mere in Lancashire,[5] and there are plans for re-introductions in Scotland and Wales.[6][7]


[edit] American Beaver
Main article: American Beaver

An American BeaverThe American Beaver (Castor canadensis), also called the Canadian Beaver (which is also the name of a subspecies), or simply Beaver in North America, is native to Canada, much of the United States and parts of northern Mexico. The chief feature distinguishing C. canadensis from C. fiber is the form of the nasal bones of the skull.[2] This species was introduced to the Argentine and Chilean Tierra del Fuego, as well as Finland, France, Poland and Russia.

The American beaver's preferred food is the water-lily (Nuphar luteum), which bears a resemblance to a cabbage-stalk, and grows at the bottom of lakes and rivers.[8] Beavers also gnaw the bark of birch, poplar, and willow trees; but during the summer a more varied herbage, with the addition of berries, is consumed.


American Beaver.These animals are often trapped for thr fur. During the early 19th century, trapping eliminated this animal from large portions of its original range. However, through trap and transfer and habitat conservation it made a nearly complete recovery by the 1940s. Beaver furs were used to make clothing and top-hats. Much of the early exploration of North America was driven by the quest for this animal's fur. Native peoples and early settlers also ate this animal's meat. The current beaver population has been estimated to be 10 to 15 million; one estimate claims that there may at one time have been as many as 90 million[9]


[edit] Giant beaver
Main article: Giant beaver
The North American Giant beaver (Castoroides ohioensis) was one of largest rodents that ever evolved. It disappeared along with other large mammals in the Holocene extinction event, which began about 13,000 years ago.


[edit] Habitat
The habitat of the beaver is the riparian zone inclusive of stream bed. The actions of beavers for hundreds of thousands of years in the Northern Hemisphere have kept these watery systems healthy and in good repair, although a human observing all the downed trees might think that the beavers were doing just the opposite.

The beaver works as a keystone species in an ecosystem by creating wetlands that are used by many other species. Next to humans, no other extant animal appears to do more to shape its landscape[citation needed].


[edit] Effect of beaver on trees

These trees, up to 250 mm (9.8 in) in diameter, felled by beavers in one night.
Beaver cuts high above ground are made in winter, by beavers working on top of crusted snow
A tree abandoned by beavers, possibly too large or in a less desirable locationBeavers fell trees for several reasons. They fell large mature trees, usually in strategic locations, to form the basis of a dam. They fell small trees, especially young second growth trees, for food. Ponds created by beavers also kill trees by drowning.


[edit] The dam's primary role: the beaver's home
Beaver dams are created both as a protection against predators, such as coyotes, wolves and bears, and to provide easy access to food during winter. Beavers always work at night and are prolific builders, carrying mud and stones with thr fore-paws and timber between thr teeth. Because of this, destroying a beaver dam without removing the beavers is difficult, especially if the dam is downstream of an active lodge. Beavers can rebuild such primary dams overnight, though they may not defend secondary dams as vigorously.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is an African even-toed ungulate mammal, the tallest of all land-living animal species, and the largest ruminant. Males can be 4.8 to 5.5 metres (16 to 18 feet) tall and wgh up to 1,700 kilograms (3,800 pounds). The record-sized bull, shot in Kenya in 1934, was 5.87 m (19.2 ft) tall and wghed approximately 2,000 kg (4,400 lb).[2] Females are generally slightly shorter, and wgh less than the males do.

The giraffe is related to deer and cattle, but is placed in a separate family, the Giraffidae, consisting only of the giraffe and its closest relative, the okapi. Its range extends from Chad to South Africa.

Giraffes can inhabit savannas, grasslands, or open woodlands. They prefer areas enriched with acacia growth. They drink large quantities of water and, as a result, they can spend long periods of time in dry, arid areas. When searching for more food they will venture into areas with denser foliage.


Etymology
The species name camelopardalis (camelopard) is derived from its early Roman name, where it was described as having characteristics of both a camel and a leopard.[3] The English word camelopard first appeared in the 14th century and survived in common usage well into the 19th century. The Afrikaans language retained it. The Arabic word الزرافة ziraafa or zurapha, meaning "assemblage" (of animals), or just "tall", was used in English from the sixteenth century on, often in the Italianate form giraffa.


Taxonomy and evolution

Comparison of the African Miocene giraffids: Palaeotragus (two top)and Climacoceras (two bottom)Giraffids evolved from a 3 metre (10 ft) tall antelope-like mammal which roamed Europe and Asia 30-50 million years ago.[4] The earliest giraffid was the Climacoceras, which still resembled deer, having large antler-like ossicones. It first appeared in the early Miocene period. As the lineage went on the genuses Palaeotragus and Samotherium appeared in the early to mid-Miocene. One species of Palaeotragus developed more giraffe-like ossicones. They both were tall at the shoulder but still had short necks. For there the genus Giraffa evolved in the Pliocene period and Okapia evolved in the Plstocene. The modern long-necked giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis, appeared 1 million years ago.

Classification
There are nine generally accepted subspecies, differentiated by colour and pattern variations and range:

Reticulated or Somali Giraffe (G.c. reticulata) — large, polygonal liver-coloured spots outlined by a network of bright white lines. The blocks may sometimes appear deep red and may also cover the legs. Range: northern Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia.
Angolan or Smoky Giraffe (G.c. angolensis) — large spots and some notches around the edges, extending down the entire lower leg. Range: Angola, Zambia.
Kordofan Giraffe (G.c. antiquorum) — smaller, more irregular spots that cover the inner legs. Range: western and southwestern Sudan.
Masai or Kilimanjaro Giraffe (G.c. tippelskirchi) — jagged-edged, vine-leaf shaped spots of dark chocolate on a yellowish background. Range: central and southern Kenya, Tanzania.
Nubian Giraffe (G.c. camelopardalis) — large, four-sided spots of chestnut brown on an off-white background and no spots on inner sides of the legs or below the hocks. Range: ern Sudan, north Congo.
Rothschild Giraffe or Baringo Giraffe or Ugandan Giraffe (G.c. rothschildi) — deep brown, blotched or rectangular spots with poorly defined cream lines. Hocks may be spotted. Range: Uganda, north-central Kenya.
South African Giraffe (G.c. giraffa) — rounded or blotched spots, some with star-like extensions on a light tan background, running down to the hooves. Range: South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique.
Thornicroft or Rhodesian Giraffe (G.c. thornicrofti) — star-shaped or leafy spots extend to the lower leg. Range: ern Zambia.
West African or Nigerian Giraffe (G.c. peralta) — numerous pale, yellowish red spots. Range: Niger, Cameroon.
Some scientists regard Kordofan and West African Giraffes as a single subspecies; similarly with Nubian and Rothschild's Giraffes, and with Angolan and South African Giraffes. Further, some scientists regard all populations except the Masai Giraffes as a single subspecies. By contrast, scientists have proposed four other subspecies — Cape Giraffe (G.c. capensis), Lado Giraffe (G.c. cottoni), Congo Giraffe (G.c. congoensis), and Transvaal Giraffe (G.c. wardi) — but none of these is widely accepted.

Though giraffes of these populations interbreed freely under conditions of captivity, suggesting that they are subspecific populations, genetic testing published in 2007[5] has been interpreted to show that there may be at l six species of giraffe that are reproductively isolated and not interbreeding, even though no natural obstacles, like mountain ranges or impassable rivers block thr mutual access. In fact, the study found that the two giraffe populations that live closest to each other— the reticulated giraffe (G. camelopardalis reticulata) of north Kenya, and the Masai giraffe (G. c. tippelskirchi) in south Kenya— separated genetically between 0.13 and 1.62 million years BP, judging from genetic drift in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA.

The implications for conservation of as many as eleven such cryptic species and sub-species were summarised by David Brown for BBC News: "Lumping all giraffes into one species obscures the reality that some kinds of giraffe are on the brink. Some of these populations number only a few hundred individuals and need immediate protection."


Reproduction
Giraffe gestation lasts between 14 and 15 months, after which a single calf is born. The mother gives birth standing up and the embryonic sack usually bursts when the baby falls to the ground. Newborn giraffes are about 1.8 m (6 ft) tall.


Mating Angolan Giraffes at Chudop waterhole, Etosha, Namibia.Within a few hours of bng born, calves can run around and are indistinguishable from a week-old calf; however, for the first two weeks, they spend most of thr time lying down, guarded by the mother. The young can fall prey to lions, leopards, spotted hyenas, and wild dogs. It has been speculated that thr characteristic spotted pattern provides a certain degree of camouflage. Only 25 to 50% of giraffe calves reach adulthood; the life expectancy is between 20 and 25 years in the wild and 28 years in captivity (Encyclopedia of Animals).


Necking

Two males necking.As noted above, males often engage in necking, which has been described as having various functions. One of these is combat. Battles can be fatal, but are more often less severe. The longer the neck, and the heavier the head at the end of the neck, the greater the force a giraffe is able to deliver in a blow. It has also been observed that males that are successful in necking have greater access to estrous females, so the length of the neck may be a product of sexual selection.[7]

After a necking duel, a giraffe can land a powerful blow with his head — occasionally knocking a male opponent to the ground. These fights rarely last more than a few minutes or end in physical harm.

Another function of necking is affectionate and sexual, in which two males will caress and court each other, leading up to mounting and climax. Same sex relations are more frequent than heterosexual behaviour. In one area 94% of mounting incidents were of a homosexual nature. The proportion of same sex courtships varies between 30 and 75%, and at any given time one in twenty males will be engaged in affectionate necking behaviour with another male. Females, on the other hand, only appear to have same sex relations in 1% of mounting incidents.[8]

[UnregisteredXOXXOO]

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is a member of the Felidae family; the largest and the most powerful of the four "big cats" in the genus Panthera.[3] Native to much of ern and southern Asia, the tiger is an apex predator and an obligate carnivore. Reaching up to 4 metres (13 ft) in total length and wghing up to 300 kilograms (660 pounds), the larger tiger subspecies are comparable in size to the biggest extinct felids.[4][5] Aside from thr great bulk and power, thr most recognizable feature is the pattern of dark vertical stripes that overlays near-white to reddish-orange fur, with lighter underparts.

Highly adaptable, tigers range from the Siberian taiga, to open grasslands, to tropical mangrove swamps. They are territorial and generally solitary animals, often requiring large contiguous areas of habitat that support thr prey demands. This, coupled with the fact that they are endemic to some of the more densely populated places on earth, has caused significant conflicts with humans. Of the nine subspecies of modern tiger, three are extinct and the remaining six are classified as endangered, some critically so. The primary direct causes are habitat destruction and fragmentation, and hunting. Thr historical range, which once reached from Mesopotamia and the Caucasus through most of South and Asia, has been radically reduced. While all surviving species are under formal protection, poaching, habitat destruction and inbreeding depression continue to be threats.

Nonetheless, tigers are among the most recognizable and popular of the world's charismatic megafauna. They have featured prominently in ancient mythology and folklore, and continue to be depicted in modern films and literature. Tigers appear on many flags and coats of arms, as mascots for sporting teams, and as the national animal of several Asian nations.

Contents [show]
1 Naming and etymology
2 Range
3 Taxonomy and evolution
3.1 Subspecies
3.2 Extinct subspecies
3.3 Hybrids
4 Biology and behaviour
4.1 Physical characteristics
4.1.1 White tigers
4.2 Territorial behavior
4.3 Hunting and diet
4.4 Interspecific predatory relationships
4.5 Reproduction
5 Habitat
6 Conservation efforts
6.1 India
6.2 Russia
6.3 Tibet
6.4 Rewilding
6.4.1 Save China's Tigers
7 Relation with humans
7.1 Tiger as prey
7.2 Man-eating tigers
7.3 Traditional Asian medicine
7.4 As pets
7.5 Cultural depictions
7.6 World's favourite animal
8 Gallery
9 See also
10 Cited references
11 References
12 External links



Naming and etymology
The word "tiger" is taken from the Greek word "tigris", which is possibly derived from a Persian source meaning "arrow", a reference to the animal's speed and also the origin for the name of the River Tigris.[6][7] In American English, "Tigress" was first recorded in 1611. It was one of the many species originally described, as Felis tigris, by Linnaeus in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae.[8] The generic component of its scientific designation, Panthera tigris, is often presumed to derive from Greek pan- ("all") and ther ("b"), but this may be a folk etymology. Although it came into English through the classical languages, panthera is probably of Asian origin, meaning "the yellowish animal," or "whitish-yellow".[9]

A group of tigers[10] is rare (see below), but when seen together is termed a 'streak' or an 'ambush'.


Range

Range of the tiger including the western part 1900 and 1990In the historical past tigers were widespread in Asia, from the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea, to Siberia and Indonesia. During the 19th century the striped cats completely vanished from western Asia, and became restricted to isolated pockets in the remaining parts of thr range. Today, this fragmented relic range extends from India in the west to China and South Asia in the . The northern limit is close to the Amur River in south ern Siberia. The only large island inhabited by tigers today is Sumatra. Tigers vanished from Java during the second half of the 19th century, and in Borneo are known only from fossil remains.


Taxonomy and evolution
The oldest remains of a tiger-like cat, called Panthera palaeosinensis, have been found in China and Java. This species lived about 2 million years ago, at the beginning of the Plstocene, and was smaller than a modern tiger. The earliest fossils of true tigers are known from Java, and are between 1.6 and 1.8 million years old. Distinct fossils from the early and middle Plstocene were also discovered in deposits from China, and Sumatra. A subspecies called the Trinil tiger (Panthera tigris trinilensis) lived about 1.2 million years ago and is known fossils found at Trinil in Java.[11]

Tigers first reached India and northern Asia in the late Plstocene, reaching ern Beringia (but not the American Continent), and Japan, and Sakhalin. Fossils found in Japan indicate that the local tigers were, like the surviving island subspecies, smaller than the mainland forms. This may be due to the phenomenon in which body size is related to environmental space (see insular dwarfism), or perhaps the availability of prey. Until the Holocene, tigers also lived in Borneo.


Subspecies
There are nine recent subspecies of tiger, three of which are extinct, and one of which is almost certain to become extinct in the near future.[3] Thr historical range (severely diminished today) ran through Russia, Siberia, Iran, Afghanistan, India, China, and south Asia, including the Indonesian islands. The surviving subspecies, in descending order of wild population, are:


Bengal tigerThe Bengal tiger or the Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is found in parts of India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Burma. It lives in varied habitats: grasslands, subtropical and tropical rainforests, scrub forests, wet and dry deciduous forests, and mangroves. Males in the wild usually wgh 205 to 227 kg (450–500 lb), while the average female will wgh about 141 kg.[12] However, the northern Indian and the Nepalese Bengal tigers are somewhat bulkier than those found in the south of the Indian Subcontinent, with males averaging around 236 kg (520 lb).[13] While conservationists already believed the population to be below 2,000,[14] the most recent audit by the Indian Government's National Tiger Conservation Authority has estimated the number at just 1,411 wild tigers (1165-1657 allowing for statistical error), a drop of 60% in the past decade.[15] Since 1972, there has been a massive wildlife conservation project, known as Project Tiger, to protect the Bengal tiger. The project is considered as one of the most successful wildlife conservation programs[citation needed], though at l one Tiger Reserve (Sariska Tiger Reserve) has lost its entire tiger population to poaching.[16]

Indochinese tigerThe Indochinese tiger (Panthera tigris corbetti), also called Corbett's tiger, is found in Cambodia, China, Laos, Burma, Thailand, and Vietnam. These tigers are smaller and darker than Bengal tigers: Males wgh from 150–190 kg (330–420 lb) while females are smaller at 110–140 kg (242–308 lb). Thr preferred habitat is forests in mountainous or hilly regions. Estimates of the Indochinese tiger population vary between 1,200 to 1,800, with only several hundred left in the wild. The largest current population is in Malaysia, where illegal poaching is strictly controlled, but all existing populations are at extreme risk from habitat fragmentation and inbreeding. In Vietnam, almost three-quarters of the tigers killed provide stock for Chinese pharmacies.
The Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris malayensis), exclusively found in the southern part of the Malay Peninsula, was not considered a subspecies in its own right until 2004. The new classification came about after a study by Luo et al. from the Laboratory of Genomic Diversity Study,[17] part of the National Cancer Institute of the United States. Recent counts showed there are 600–800 tigers in the wild, making it the third largest tiger population, behind the Bengal tiger and the Indochinese tiger. The Malayan tiger is the smallest of the mainland tiger subspecies, and the second smallest living subspecies, with males averaging about 120 kg and females about 100 kg in wght. The Malayan tiger is a national icon in Malaysia, appearing on its coat of arms and in logos of Malaysian institutions, such as Maybank.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Bert and Ernie were built by Don Sahlin from a simple design scribbled by Muppets creator Jim Henson. According to Frank Oz, Sahlin also defined thr characters on the basis of thr physical appearance: Ernie was an orange and Bert was a banana.

According to A&E's Biography, Ernie and Bert were the only Muppets to appear in the Sesame Street pilot episode, which was screen tested to a number of families in July 1969. Thr brief appearance was the only part of the pilot that tested well, so it was decided that not only should Muppet characters be the "stars" of the show, but would also interact with the human characters, something that was not done in the pilot.


[edit] Bert
Main article: Bert (Sesame Street)
Bert was originally performed by Frank Oz. Since 2001, Muppeteer Eric Jacobson has been phased in as Bert's primary performer.

Bert, though intelligent, is also grumpy, boring and easily frustrated. He enjoys activities such as paper clip and bottle cap collecting, cooking oatmeal and watching pigeons. In one sketch, Bert reads a book called "Boring Stories" and chuckles, "Boy, these Boring Stories are really exciting!" In the book Sesame Street Unpaved, Frank Oz says, "I was never really happy with Bert's character until about a year in, when I realized... that he was a very boring character, and I'd use that weakness as a strength for him." On a 2007 episode of Martha Stewart's TV program, in a sidelong reference to Tommy Newsom of Tonight Show fame, Bert was ironically described as "Mr. Excitement" by pal Cookie Monster.

Bert is good friends with a pigeon named Bernice, and has even created a dance called "Doin' the Pigeon". Bert serves as President of the National Association of W Lovers, a club dedicated to the letter W. Two conventions held by the W Lovers have been shown on the show. Bert also has pet goldfish, two of whom are named Lyle and Talbot, a reference to the actor Lyle Talbot. Bert has a twin brother, Bart; a nephew, Brad; and an Aunt Matilda.

The age of Bert and Ernie is regularly discussed on forums. Nothing official has ever been said, but most consider the duo adults, as they do not appear to be highly dependent on others. Helping suggestions of the characters bng young is a comment by Sesame Street Live performer Taylor Morgan. Morgan said to the Macon Telegraph that "I just kind of try to think like a 6-year-old or 7-year-old, because that's how old Bert is."[1]


[edit] Ernie
Main article: Ernie
Ernie was originally performed by Jim Henson. Since 1993, Muppeteer Steve Whitmire took on the role of Ernie following the death of Henson in 1990.

Ernie is well known for his fondness for baths with his Rubber duck and for having trouble trying to learn to play the saxophone because he would not "put down the duckie." The Rubber Ducky song is well known throughout the world. Children can visit Ernie at "Sesame Place," in Langhorne, Pennsylvania.

Ernie is a "live hands puppet", meaning that while operating the head of the puppet with his right hand, the puppeteer inserts his left hand into a T-shaped sleeve, capped off with a glove that matches the fabric "skin" of the puppet, thus "becoming" the left arm of the puppet. A second puppeteer usually provides the right arm.

Ernie's performance of "Rubber Duckie," whern he sings affectionately about his squeaking toy duck and the joy it brings him during bathtime, became a modest mainstream hit, reaching No. 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 in September 1970.[2]


[edit] Comedy routines
A typical Bert and Ernie skit follows one of two similar patterns, both beginning with Ernie devising a hare-brained idea and Bert calmly attempting to talk him out of it. Usually this ends with Bert losing his temper and Ernie remaining oblivious to his own bad idea. Sometimes Ernie's idea miraculously turns out to be correct, much to Bert's evident frustration.

An example of a Bert and Ernie skit is the banana in my ear joke:

Bert: "Hey, you've got a banana in your ear!"
Ernie: "What?"
Bert: "I said, YOU'VE GOT A BANANA IN YOUR EAR!"
Ernie: "What? I can't hear you; I've got a banana in my ear!"
Bert: "Hey, you've got a banana in your ear!"
Ernie: "I know, I'm keeping the alligator away."
Bert: "But there aren't any alligators on Sesame Street!"
Ernie: "I know, it's working!"

[edit] Rumors and misconceptions

Bert and Ernie shown as bng married at the 2008 Chicago gay pride parade.In 1997, the parody website "Bert is Evil" displayed Bert in a number of doctored photographs, implicating him in crimes ranging from the John F. Kennedy assassination to those of Jack the Ripper. A similar image from another source and featuring Bert conferring with Osama bin Laden was mistakenly included by a Bangladeshi print shop on a series of protest signs in late 2001 and 2002. [3]

Characters named Bert and Ernie appear in the film It's a Wonderful Life as a policeman and a taxi driver, respectively, though the use of the names by Henson is said to be a coincidence.[4] In the movie Elmo Saves Christmas, Sesame pokes fun at this.[citation needed]

Ernie and Bert share an apartment in the basement of 123 Sesame Street. Although they sleep in separate beds, this has led some to suggest that they are representations of gay lovers since they share a bedroom.[5] This is denied by Sesame Workshop, the corporation that owns the show and the characters, but the idea is sufficiently widespread that it has been used as the basis of jokes by Saturday Night Live, Family Guy, American Dad! and the Broadway play "Avenue Q".[citation needed]

Some of Bert's interactions with female characters appear to show that he is attracted to women. Bert serenades Connie Stevens in the Some Enchanted Evening segment of a Season One episode of The Muppet Show. Bert also recorded a song about his girlfriend, I Want to Hold Your Ear, which was released on several albums

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Ticks are blood-feeding parasites that are often found in tall grass and shrubs where they will wait to attach to a passing host. Physical contact is the only method of transportation for ticks. Ticks do not jump or fly, although they may drop from thr perch and fall onto a host. Some species actively stalk the host by foot.

Changes in temperature and day length are some of the factors signaling a tick to seek a host. Ticks can detect heat emitted or carbon dioxide respired from a nearby host. They will generally drop off the animal when full, but this may take several days. In some cases, ticks will live for some time on the blood of an animal. Ticks have a harpoon-like structure in thr mouth area, known as a hypostome, that allows them to anchor themselves firmly in place while feeding. The hypostome has a series of barbs angled back, which is why they are so difficult to remove once they have penetrated a host. Ticks can be found in most wooded or forested areas throughout the world. They are especially common in areas where there are deer trails or horse paths.

Some of the more common diseases that can be contracted from a tick bite include (listed alphabetically): Babesiosis, Ehrlichiosis, Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Southern tick-associated rash illness, Tick-borne relapsing fever, and Tularemia.


[edit] Population control

[edit] Case Study of the American Deer Tick
The blacklegged or deer tick (Ixodes scapularis) is dependent on the white-tailed deer for successful reproduction. Larval and nymph stages (immature ticks that cannot reproduce) of the deer tick feed on birds and small mammals. The adult female tick needs a large 3 day blood meal from the deer before she can reproduce and lay her 2000 or more eggs. Deer are the primary host for the adult deer tick and are key to the reproductive success of the tick.[2] .[citation needed] See the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station and Connecticut Department of Public Health joint publication "Tick Management Handbook" [3] for more details of the tick's life cycle and dependence on deer.

Numerous studies have shown that abundance and distribution of deer ticks are correlated with deer densities.[2][4][5][6] For example when the deer population was reduced by 74% at a 248-acre (1.00 km²) study site in Bridgeport, Connecticut, the number of nymphal ticks collected at the site decreased by 92%.[2] Furthermore, the relationship between deer abundance, tick abundance, and human cases of Lyme disease was well documented in the Mumford Cove Community in Groton, Connecticut, from 1996 to 2004. The deer population in Mumford Cove was reduced from about 77 deer per square mile to about 10 deer per square mile after 2 years of controlled hunting. After the initial reduction the deer population was maintained at low levels. Reducing deer densities to 10 deer per square mile was adequate to reduce by more than 90% the risk of humans contracting Lyme disease in Mumford Cove.[7] Deer population management must serve as the main tool in any long-term strategy to reduce human incidences of Lyme disease.[8]

A method of reducing deer tick (Ixodes scapularis/dammini) populations - Damminix [2] - may be cited. It consists of biodegradable cardboard tubes stuffed with permethrin-treated cotton and works in the following way: Mice collect the cotton for lining thr nests. The pesticide on the cotton kills any immature ticks that are feeding on the mice. It is important to put the tubes where mice will find them, such as in dense, dark brush or at the base of a log; mice are unlikely to gather the cotton from an open lawn. Best results are obtained with regular applications early in the spring and again in late summer. The more nghbors who also use Damminix, the better. Damminix appears to help control tick populations, particularly in the year following initial use. Note that it is not effective on the West Coast. See UMM Patient Education Link.

A potential alternative to Damminix's permethrin is fipronil. It is used in the Maxforce Tick Management system, in which fipronil is painted onto rodents visiting the plastic baitboxes. see[3]. This system is no longer generally available for sale by Bayer. In 2005, there were selective reports of grey squirrels "chewing" into some Maxforce TMS boxes in areas of the northern United States, compromising the child resistant box. Due to this problem, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) asked that all similarly designed TMS boxes applied in 2006 be covered with a protective shroud capable of preventing squirrel damage. The Maxforce TMS system remains registered by the federal EPA for its continued use. A metal shroud has been developed and is reportedly in use to eliminate any potential squirrel damage to the plastic box. This shroud reportedly satisfies the EPA's mandate to protect the boxes from such damage and is recommended by Bayer Environmental Science. Availability however outside of Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and Rhode Island may be minimal.


[edit] Other Control Measures
Also, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention offers advice on reducing ticks around your home. [4]

The parasitic Ichneumon wasp Ixodiphagus hookeri has long been investigated for its potential to control tick populations. It lays its eggs into ticks; the hatching wasps kill its host.

Another "natural" form of control for ticks is the Guineafowl. They consume mass quantities of ticks.[citation needed] Just 2 birds can clear 2 acres (8,100 m²) in a single year.

Topical (drops/dust) flea/tick medicines need to be used with care. Phenothrin (85.7%) in combination with Methopren was a popular topical flea/tick therapy for felines. Phenothrin kills adult fleas and ticks. Methoprene is an insect growth regulator that interrupts the insect's life cycle by killing the eggs. However, the EPA has made at l one manufacturer of these products withdraw some products and include strong cautionary statements on others, warning of adverse reactions.[9]

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

It grows throughout much of North America, including all Canadian provinces except Newfoundland (but not the Territories) and all U.S. states except Alaska, Hawai‘i, and California, and is normally found in wooded areas, especially along edge areas. It also grows in exposed rocky areas and in open fields and disturbed areas. It also grows as a forest understory plant, although it is only somewhat shade tolerant[1]. The plant is extremely common in suburban and exurban areas of New England, the Mid-Atlantic and Southern United States. It rarely grows at altitudes above 1,500 meters (5,000 ft), although the altitude limit varies in different locations[1]. The plants can grow as a shrub up to about 1.2 meters (4 ft) tall, as a groundcover 10–25 centimeters (4–10 in) high, or as a climbing vine on various supports. Older vines on substantial supports send out lateral branches that may at first be mistaken for tree limbs.

It is not particularly sensitive to soil moisture, although it does not grow in desert or arid conditions. It grows in a wide variety of soil types, and soil pH from 6.0 (acidic) to 7.9 (moderately alkaline). It can grow in areas subject to seasonal flooding or brackish water.[1]

It is more common now than when Europeans first entered North America. Real estate development adjacent to wild, undeveloped land has engendered "edge effects," enabling poison ivy to form vast, lush colonies in such places. It is listed as a noxious weed in the U.S. states of Minnesota and Michigan and the Canadian province of Ontario.


[edit] Characteristic appearance

Poison ivy flowers
Box Elder on the left, poison ivy on the right
Poison ivy vine with typical reddish "hairs"The leaves are ternate with three almond-shaped leaflets. The berries (actually drupes) are a grayish-white color and are a favorite winter food of some birds. This is the basis of mnemonics such as "Leaves of three, let it be; leaves of four, eat some more"; variants include "... hairy vine, no friend of mine",[2] "... berries white, run in fright" and "... berries white, danger in sight".[3]

The color ranges from light green (usually the younger leaves) to dark green (mature leaves), turning bright red in fall. The leaflets of mature leaves are somewhat shiny. The leaflets are 3-12 cm long, rarely up to 30 cm. Each leaflet has a few or no teeth along its edge, and the leaf surface is smooth. Leaflet clusters are alternate on the vine, and the plant has no thorns. These three characteristics: (a) clusters of three leaflets, (b) alternate, and (c) lack of thorns, are sufficient to positively identify the plant. If it is growing up the trunk of a tree, the presence of copious root-hairs will identify it,[4] leading to the "hairy vine, no friend of mine" warning.

Poison ivy spreads both vegetatively and sexually. The vines put down adventitious roots, or the plant can spread from rhizomes or root crowns. The plant flowers in May to July and produces mature fruits by August to November. Seeds are spread mainly by animals, and are viable after passing through the digestive tract of birds.[1]


[edit] Effects on the body
Main article: Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis
The reaction caused by poison-ivy, urushiol-induced contact dermatitis, is an allergic reaction. Around 15%[5] to 30%[6] of people have no allergic response, but most if not all will become sensitized over time with repeated or more concentrated exposure to urushiol. Note that reactions that worsen over time may progress to anaphylaxis and can therefore be dangerous, even life-threatening.

For those who are affected by urushiol, it causes a very irritating rash. In extreme cases, corticosteroids can be needed to treat rashes and severe itching. The first symptom of contact is a severe itching of the skin that develops into reddish colored inflammation or non-colored bumps, and then blistering of the skin occurs. In severe cases, clear fluids ooze from open blistered sores. Once the urushiol poison has had contact with the skin, it is quickly bound to the skin.

The oozing fluids released by itching blisters do not spread the poison. The appearance of a spreading rash indicates that some areas recved more of the poison and reacted sooner than other areas. The blisters and oozing result from blood vessels that develop gaps and leak fluid through the skin; if the skin is cooled, the vessels constrict and leak less. If poison ivy is burned and the smoke then inhaled, this rash will appear on the lining of the lungs, causing extreme pain and possibly fatal respiratory difficulty. If poison ivy is eaten, the digestive tract, airway, kidneys or other organs can be damaged.

Understanding why new lesions may develop for two weeks (studied on forearm) after one exposure was made clear by a University of Miami scientist: larger amounts have earliest onset and largest reaction, smallest produce a delayed reaction. The overall severity 'progresses' with the combined active lesions. Therefore, the last new lesion should occur at two weeks after last exposure, the total rash (untreated) may go on for 3-4 weeks.

Urushiol oil can remain active for several years, so handling dead leaves or vines can cause a reaction. In addition, oil transferred from the plant to other objects (such as pet fur) can cause the rash if it comes into contact with the skin.[7]

People who are sensitive to poison-ivy can also experience a similar rash from mangoes. Mangoes are in the same family (Anacardiaceae) as poison ivy; the sap of the mango tree and skin of mangoes has a chemical compound similar to urushiol. [8]

Similar reactions have been reported occasionally from contact with the related aromatic sumac or Japanese lacquer tree.


[edit] Confusion with other plants
Boxelder Maple (Acer negundo) saplings can look almost indistinguishable from poison ivy. While Boxelder Maples often have five or seven leaflets, three leaflets are also common. The two can be differentiated by the fact that Poison-ivy has alternate leaves, while the maple has opposite leaves; in other words, by observing where the leaf stalk (the "branch" the three leaflets are attached to) meets the main branch. Another leaf stalk directly on the opposite side is characteristic of Boxelder Maple. If the three-leaflet leaves alternate along the main branch, it may be Poison-ivy.
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) vines can look like Poison-ivy. The younger leaves can consist of three leaflets but have a few more serrations along the leaf edge, and the leaf surface is somewhat wrinkled. However, most Virginia creeper leaves have five leaflets. Virginia creeper and poison ivy very often grow together, even on the same tree. Beware that even people who do not get poison ivy may be allergic to the oxalate crystals that are in its sap.
Western Poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum‎) leaflets also come in threes on the end of a stem, but each leaflet is shaped somewhat like an oak leaf. Western Poison-oak only grows in the western United States and Canada, although many people will refer to poison ivy as poison-oak. This is because poison ivy will grow in ther the ivy-like form or the brushy oak-like form depending on the moisture and brightness of its environment. The ivy form likes shady areas with only a little sun, tends to climb the trunks of trees, and can spread rapidly along the ground.
Poison Sumac (Toxicodendron vernix) has compound leaves with 7–15 leaflets. Poison sumac never has only three leaflets.
Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) is a non-toxic edible vine that scrambles extensively over lower vegetation or grows high into trees. Kudzu is an invasive species in the southern United States. Like poison ivy it has three leaflets, but the leaflets are bigger than those of poison ivy and are pubescent underneath with hairy margins.
Blackberry and raspberry vines bear a passing resemblance to poison ivy, with which they may share territory. The chief difference between blackberry vines and poison ivy is that blackberry vines have spines on them, whereas poison ivy is smooth. Also, the three-leaflet pattern of blackberry vine leaves changes as the plant grows: the two bottom leaves both split into two leaves, for a total of five in a cluster. They have many teeth along the leaf edge, and the top surface of thr leaves is very wrinkled where the vns are, and the bottom of the leaves is light minty - greenish white, while poison ivy is all green. The stem and vine of poison ivy are brown and woody, while blackberry stems are green with thorns.
The thick vines of grape, with no rootlets visible, differ from the vines of poison ivy, which have so many rootlets that the stem going up a tree looks furry.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Since you get more joy out of giving joy to others, you should put a good deal of thought into the happiness that you are able to give.
- Eleanor Roosevelt

A smile is a curve that sets everything straight.
- Anonymous

One joy scatters a hundred griefs.
- Chinese Proverb

Into the house where joy lives, happiness will gladly come.
- Japanese Proverb

Rejoice in the Lord always. I will say it again: Rejoice! Let your gentleness be evident to all. The Lord is near. Do not be anxious about anything, but in everything, by prayer and petition, with thanksgiving, present your requests to God. And the peace of God, which transcends all understanding, will guard your hearts and your minds in Christ Jesus.
- Philippians 4: 4-7

A smile is a light in the window of the soul indicating that the heart is at home.
- Anonymous

This is the best kind of voyeurism, hearing joy from your nghbors.
- Chuck Sigars

I feel like a tiny bird with a big song!
- Jerry Van Amerongen

Joy is the feeling of grinning inside.
- Melba Colgrove

Joy is a net of love by which you can catch souls.
- Mother Teresa

There may be peace without joy, and joy without peace, but the two combined make happiness
- John Buchan

Sometimes your joy is the source of your smile, but sometimes your smile can be the source of your joy.
- Thich Nhat Hanh

Let a joy keep you. Reach out your hands and take it when it runs by.
- Carl Sandburg

Joy can be real only if people look on thr life as a service, and have a definite object in life outside themselves and thr personal happiness.
- Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy

There are those who give with joy, and that joy is thr reward.
- Kahlil Gibran

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

It is the heart that makes a man rich. He is rich according to what he is, not according to what he has.
- Henry Ward Beecher

Not he who has much is rich, but he who gives much.
- Erich Fromm

We are rich only through what we give, and poor only through what we refuse.
- Anne Sophie Swetchine

Wealth belongs to the person who enjoys it and not to the one who keeps it.
- Afghan Proverb

It is not the man who has too little, but the man who craves more, that is poor.
- Seneca

Wealth is but dung, useful only when spread about.
- Chinese Proverb

It is not what we take up, but what we give up, that makes us rich.
- Henry Ward Beecher

Make no mistake, my friend, it takes more than money to make men rich.
- A. P. Gouthey

The wealth of a soul is measured by how much it can feel; its poverty by how little.
- W. R. Inge

Time is the most valuable thing a man can spend.
- Laertius Diogenes

A person's true wealth is the good he or she does in the world.
- Mohammed

Adversity it sometimes hard upon a man; but for one man who can stand prosperity, there are a hundred that will stand adversity.
- Thomas Carlyle

Where there is no wealth there is no poverty.
- African Proverb

My friends are my estate.
- Emily Dickinson

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Discipline is the bridge between goals and accomplishment.
- Jim Rohn

Training a dog demands discipline from the dog - and the owner

No man is free who is not master of himself.
- Epictetus

We mustn't let our passions destroy our dreams.
- Anonymous

It is easier to suppress the first desire than to satisfy all that follow.
- Anonymous

There is no pleasure in life equal to that of the conquest of a vicious habit.
- Anonymous

He who conquers himself has won a greater victory than he who conquers a city.
- Proverbs

There is no luck except where there is discipline.
- Irish Proverb

If you would live your life with ease; do what you ought, not what you please.
- Anonymous

The mind is a lousy master but a wonderful servant.
- Anonymous

Learning karate requires self-control and discipline

As strong as my legs are, it is my mind that has made me a champion.
- Michael Johnson

There are many who's tongues might govern multitudes, if they could govern thr tongues.
- Prentice

The ability to concentrate and to use your time well is everything if you want to succeed in business – or in anything else, for that matter.
- Lee Iacocca, twentieth-century businessman

He who lives without discipline dies without honor.
- Icelandic Proverb

Let him that would move the world first move himself.
- Socrates

Real glory springs from the silent conquest of ourselves.
- Anonymous

The basis of self-discipline: Don’t allow the edges to blur.

[Unregisteredyah!]

Nothing liberates our greatness like the desire to help, the desire to serve.
- Marianne Williamson, Author/Lecturer

Unselfish and noble actions are the most radiant pages in the biography of souls.
- David Thomas

Volunteering is not a choice, it's a responsibility.
- Ashley E. Hyder

Your talent is God's gift to you. What you do with it is your gift back to God.
- Anonymous

All labor that uplifts humanity has dignity and importance and should be undertaken with painstaking excellence.
- Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

You will come to know that what appears today to be a sacrifice will prove instead to be the greatest investment that you will ever make.
- Gorden B. Hinkley

Service is the rent we pay to be living. It is the very purpose of life and not something you do in your spare time.
–Marian Wright Edelman

…no matter how big government gets, and no matter how many services it provides, it can never take the place of volunteers.
- Ronald Reagan, 40th U.S. president

There is no exercise better for the heart than reaching down and lifting people up.
- John Andrew Holmes Jr., American writer and minister

Sacrifice is giving up something good for something better.
- Anonymous

The broadest, and maybe the most meaningful definition of volunteering: Doing more than you have to because you want to, in a cause you consider good.
- Ivan Scher

Freely we serve,
Because we freely love, as in our will
To love or not; in this we stand or fall.
- John Milton

Volunteers don't get paid, not because they're worthless, but because they're priceless.

[Unregisteredyeayea]

Yea Yea Jamie, keep trying to bury this thread you lying sack of shit!

[UnregisteredBUFF]

Care & Use of Your Magnetic Signs
It is important that you read and follow recommendations throughly. Your caution in using your signs is imperative, as AAInstantsign.com will not assume responsibility for signs that fly off of your vehicle for any reason.

Before applying your magnetic signs make sure that your magnetic signs, as well as your vehicle, are clean and dry. You should lay your signs on a warm flat surface (like your dinning table) for a while so that they will lay flat when applied to your vehicle. It is best if your vehicle has not been waxed within the last two months. If your vehicle is new, or has been waxed recently, allow several months for the paint or wax to cure. An important thing to consider when choosing where to place your signs is that magnetic sheeting adheres best to flat surfaces and surfaces with slight curves. As you are putting on your signs, remember that, when you need to realign your sign, you need to remove the sign, and then put it where you want. NEVER PULL YOUR MAGNETIC SIGN TO REALIGN IT. Not only do you hazard scratching the paint, you will also run the risk of stretching the magnetic sign material. Make sure that the whole magnet is flush against the metal surface; there should not be any air pockets. Do not put the signs on any freshly repainted surfaces. AAInstantsign.com is not responsible for any loss or damage that results from the misuse of magnetic material.

Weekly removal and cleaning is recommended, when used in a normal outdoor environment, this will keep moisture and dirt from collecting behind your magnetic signs. Remove and clean your signs as well as the surface you put them on and allow them to thoroughly air dry. This process should be repeated daily when you are using your signs outdoors in dusty conditions. Be absolutely sure that your signs stay clean so they won’t scratch the surface they are on.

Your magnetic signs will be most pliable, which makes them easier to work with, when they are near room temperature when they are applied. The best way to store your magnetic signs is to lay them flat, it is best to not roll them after you recve them. We roll them once for shipping purposes. Never place like sides together (printed side to printed side or backing to backing) this will discharge the magnetic material. Stacking them on top of one another for storage is fine. Avoid placing signs on protruding objects. You should also avoid contacting the lettering on your sign against the other sign or any other objects. The graphic material we used to make your sign is very high quality, but it is not indestructible.

Other companies suggest that you round the corners of your sign as the square corners create more wind resistance and are more easily damaged and dog-eared over time. However, we have already provided this service for you so you do not need to change the corners at all.

Due to the delicate nature of magnetic signs and our lack of control over the environment and individual conditions, we do not address claims made after 30 days. The longevity of your signs directly reflects how well they have been cared for.

[Unregisteredxxxxxx]

The first automatic car washes appeared in the mid 1950s. Mechanized car washes consist of tunnel-like bays into which customers drive thr cars. Some car washes, following the exterior express trend, allow thr customers to pay through a computerized POS, or point of sale unit, also known as an "automatic cashier", which in many cases may take the place of a greeter. The mechanism inputs the wash PLU into a master computer or a tunnel controller automatically. When the sale is automated, after paying the car is put into a line-up often called the stack or queue. The stack moves sequentially, so the wash knows what each car purchased. After pulling up to the tunnel, an attendant usually guides the customer onto the track or conveyor. At some washes, both tires will pass over a tire sensor, and the system will send several rollers. The tire sensor lets the wash know where the wheels are and how far apart they are. On other systems, however, the employee may have to guide the customer on and hit the 'Send Car' button on the tunnel controller.

While on the conveyor or track, the attendant will usually ask the customer to put his or her vehicle into neutral, release all brakes, and refrain from steering. Failure to do so will inhibit the conveyor. The rollers catch the tires, pushing the car through a photo eye or magnetic loop detector, which measures vehicle length, allowing the controller to tailor the wash to each individual vehicle. The equipment frame, or arches, vary in number and type. A good car wash makes use of many different pieces of equipment to thoroughly clean the vehicle.


A vehicle in the high pressure rinse stage of the wash, just beyond the wraps. Also visible is the conveyor.The customer will first encounter one or two arches, often called pre-soak arches. They ther apply a lower pH (mild acid) followed by a higher pH (mild alkali), or the order may be reversed depending on chemical suppliers and formula used. Some use hot water feeds during dilution into a hydrominder of some form to enhance the operation of the chemicals. Others go more corrosive, some bng pH ght and above using sodium hydroxide, phosphoric acid, or hydrofluoric acid which can etch glass. Of course, these are not used in harmful concentrations since car washes are designed not to harm a vehicle's components or finish.

The customer next encounters tire and wheel nozzles, which the industry calls CTAs (Chemical Tire Applicators). These will apply ther a degreaser with a high alkalinity solution, or even an acid. These remove brake dust and build up from the surface of the wheels. The next arch should be entrance wraps usually made of a soft cloth, micro-fiber, neo-glide, or other or cloth-like material. This gentle cloth, despite popular belief, will not scratch the vehicle unless something is caught in them. This is why most washes will not allow anything in the back of a truck go through thr wash. These should rub the front bumper and, if programmed with a good cloth pattern, will make a swipe on each side of the rear of the vehicle cleaning the license plate. Past the first wraps or entrance wraps is a tire brush spinning at a high RPM that will scrub the tires. This is usually located beneath the mitters (hanging curtains of cloth strips that move front to back or side to side) or top brushes. There may also be rocker panel washers which are shorter in size (ranging in size from 18 inches up to 63 inches tall) that clean the lower parts of the vehicle. Most rocker brushes house the motor below the brush hub so they don't inhibit cloth movement and allow the brush to be mounted under a support frame or below a mitter.


Typical "tunnel" car wash view from the insideThe mitters cloth can vary greatly between perma color, micro-fiber, or more gentle neo-glide. After the mitters, the car passes through exit wraps which are just like the entrance wraps. This is where the water works begin with high pressure streams of water. The customer ther passes over an under carriage wash or gets high pressure nozzles pointed up on a mounted base. Next, if available, is a tire spinner or omni spinner. These are high pressure nozzles angled and mounted on a spindle. When high pressure is forced through, it causes the nozzles to spin rapidly. If timed, programed, and adjusted correctly, the nozzles will follow the front and back rims. Past the omni spinners are the omnis-- high pressure nozzles mounted on the sides and top of an arch. These will move side to side and up and down blasting dirt from the cracks of the vehicle (not yet in the rinsing phase). After passing the omnis, the vehicle may triple foamers, usually red, blue, and yellow.

There are two types of foam: polish and wax. Polish is cheaper and may be harder to rinse off, sometimes becoming solid matter in its holding tank. Wax is more expensive, but rinses well and covers the vehicle with a lighter and puffier foam. It does offer more protection than the polish, but is not what protects overall. The next arch will be mitters to rub the foam on the vehicle. Some washes have multiple rinse stages, usually offering a protectant. Protectants vary greatly with some making water bead (or gather) and some making water sheet (or spread to a thin layer) before bng blown away by a dryer. Near the rinse is where a tire shiner, which is made of foam pads that retract and have a thick oily substance pumped through them like glycol to rub across tires producing a wet or new look. Finally the vehicle encounters a spot free rinse of soft water that has been filtered of chlorine and sent trough semi permeable membranes to produce highly diluted water that will not leave spots. After using spot free water, the vehicle usually does not require hand drying. The wash often finishes with this drying, and a light usually indicates for the customer to leave.


A touchless car washOld-style automatic washes used rotating brushes with soft nylon bristles, but these tended to put faint scratches in the vehicle's paint. Some brushes are made of soft cloth, and these are less harmful to a car's finish. The most current technology is a foam based brush (called a "wrap"), which is resistant to this when properly lubricated with water. In order to avoid scratching issues, "touchless" or "no-touch" car washes were developed. This means the car is washed with high water pressure instead of actual machine equipment.

At "full-service" car washes, the exterior of the car is washed mechanically with conveyorized equipment, but attendants are available to dry the car manually, clean any spots the equipment has missed, and to clean the interior (normally consisting of cleaning the windows, wiping the front and side dashes, and vacuuming the carpet and upholstery).


[edit] Bikini car wash
Bikini car washes are a summer event that occurs, usually for two purposes:

It is generally a fund raiser for a school, a sport association or any other youth organization or charity. Typically, attractive college/high school girls in bikinis bring in donors by standing on a roadside with colorful cardboard signs, and the cars are washed by thr male and female classmates in a nearby parking lot.
There are also commercial bikini car washes, where bikini clad girls actually wash the cars for a fee and the entertainment of the drivers. Hooters restaurants usually have bikini car washes in the summer to attract customers.
There are frequent references to bikini car wash in pop culture, for instance, the movie The Bikini Carwash Company or in the Jessica Simpson music video These Boots Are Made for Walkin'.





[edit] Environmental factors
The primary environmental considerations for car washing are:

Use of water and energy resources;
Contamination of surface waters;
Contamination of soil and groundwater.
Use of water supplies and energy are self-evident, since car washes are users of such resources. The professional car wash industry has made great strides in reducing its environmental footprint, a trend that will continue to accelerate due to regulation and consumer demand. Many car washes already use water reclamation systems to significantly reduce water usage and a variety of energy usage reduction technologies. These systems may be mandatory where water restrictions are in place.

Contamination of surface waters arises from the rinseate discharging to storm drains, which in turn most commonly drain to rivers and lakes. Chief pollutants in such wash-water include phosphates; oil and grease; and lead. This is almost exclusively an issue for home/driveway washing. Professional carwashing is a "non-point source" of discharge that has the ability to capture these contaminants and have them undergo treatment before bng released into sanitary systems. (Water and contaminants that enter storm water drains does not undergo treatment, and is released directly into rivers, lakes and streams.)

Soil contamination is sometimes related to such surface runoff, but more importantly is associated with soil contamination from underground fuel tanks or auto servicing operations which commonly are ancillary uses of car wash sites — but not an issue for car washing itself.

For these reasons, some state and local environmental groups (the most notable bng the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection) have begun campaigns to encourage consumers to use professional car washes as opposed to driveway washing, including moving charity car wash fund raisers from parking lots to professional car washes.


[edit] See also

[Unregisteredxoxoxo]

Jealousy is a familiar experience in human relationships. It has been reported in every culture and in many forms where researchers have looked. [3] [4] [5] It has been observed in infants as young as 5-6 months old and in adults over 65 years old. [6] [7] [8] [9]

Jealousy has been an enduring topic of interest for scientists, artists, and theologians. Psychologists have proposed several models of the processes underlying jealousy and have identified individual differences that influence the expression of jealousy. Sociologists have demonstrated that cultural beliefs and values play an important role in determining what triggers jealousy and what constitutes socially acceptable expressions of jealousy. Biologists have identified factors that may unconsciously influence the expression of jealousy. Artists have explored the theme of jealousy in photographs, paintings, movies, songs, plays, poems, and books. Theologians have offered religious views of jealousy based on the scriptures of thr respective faiths.


[edit] Origins
Jealousy involves an entire “emotional episode,” including a complex “narrative,”: the circumstances that lead up to jealousy, jealousy itself as emotion, any attempt at self regulation, subsequent actions and events and the resolution of the episode (Parrott, 2001, p. 306). The narrative can originate from experienced facts, thoughts, perceptions, memories, but also imagination, guess and assumptions. The more society and culture matter in the formation of these factors, the more jealousy can have a social and cultural origin. By contrast, Goldie (2000, p. 228) shows how jealousy can be a “cognitively impenetrable state”, where education and rational belief matter very little.

One explanation of the origin of jealousy in evolutionary psychology is that the emotion evolved in order to maximize the success of our genes: it is a biologically based emotion (Prinz after Buss and Larsen, 2004, p. 120) selected to foster the certainty about the paternity of one’s own offspring. A jealous behavior, in men, is directed into avoiding sexual betrayal and a consequent waste of resources and effort in taking care of someone else’s offspring. There are, additionally, cultural or social explanations of the origin of jealousy. According to one, the narrative from which jealousy arises can be in great part made by the imagination. Imagination is strongly affected by the culture a person is inserted in. The pattern of reasoning, the way one percves situations, depends strongly on cultural context.


[edit] Psychology of jealousy
While mainstream psychology considers sexual arousal through jealousy a paraphilia, some authors on sexuality (Serge Kreutz, Instrumental Jealousy) have argued that jealousy in manageable dimensions can have a definite positive effect on sexual function and sexual satisfaction. Studies have also shown that jealousy sometimes hghtens passion towards partners and increases the intensity of passionate sex. [10] [11]


[edit] Sociology of jealousy
Main article: Jealousy sociology
Anthropologists have claimed that jealousy varies across cultures. Cultural learning can influence the situations that trigger jealousy and the manner in which jealousy is expressed. Attitudes toward jealousy can also change within a culture over time. For example, attitudes toward jealousy changed substantially during the 1960s and 1970s in the United States. People in the United States adopted much more negative views about jealousy.


[edit] Jealousy in art

Love letter from a rival; youth catches his boyfriend with a love letter from another. Panel from a series of ten homoerotic scenes on a shunga-style painted hand scroll (kakemono-e); sumi, color and gofun on silk. Miyagawa Isshô, ca. 1750Main article: Jealousy in art
Jealousy is the powerful complex of emotions experienced at the loss, real or imagined, of something or someone you believe is yours, whereas envy concerns what you don’t have and would like to possess. Othello is filled with jealousy at the thought of losing Desdemona: Iago is consumed with envy of Othello’s prestige. Because jealous lovers tell multiple stories about those who arouse thr jealousy, and because the emotion is so corrosive, jealousy is a common theme in literature, art, theatre, and film.

[Unregisteredxoxoxo]

study of psychology in a philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China and India. Psychology began adopting a more clinical[1] and experimental[2] approach under medieval Muslim psychologists and physicians, who built psychiatric hospitals for such purposes.[3]

Though the use of psychological experimentation dates back to Alhazen's Book of Optics in 1021,[2][4] psychology as an independent experimental field of study began in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research at Lpzig University in Germany, for which Wundt is known as the "father of psychology".[5] 1879 is thus sometimes regarded as the "birthdate" of psychology. The American philosopher William James published his seminal book, Principles of Psychology,[6] in 1890, while laying the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would focus on for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), a pioneer in the experimental study of memory at the University of Berlin; and the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), who investigated the learning process now referred to as classical conditioning.


[edit] Psychoanalysis

Auguste Rodin's The Thinker, bronze cast by Alexis Rudier, Laeken Cemetery, Brussels, Belgium.During the 1890s, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed a method of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations, and was focused in particular on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and psychopathology. Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Freud also had a significant influence on Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology. Philosopher Karl Popper argued that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in untestable form.[7] Due to thr subjective nature, Freud's theories are often of limited interest to many scientifically-oriented psychology departments. Followers of Freud who accept the basic ideas of psychoanalysis but alter it in some way are called neo-Freudians. Modification of Jung's theories has led to the archetypal and process-oriented schools of psychological thought.


[edit] Behaviorism
Partly in opposition to the subjective and introspective nature of Freudian psychodynamics, and its focus on the recollection of childhood experiences, during the early decades of the 20th century, behaviorism gained popularity as a guiding psychological theory. Founded by John B. Watson and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F. Skinner, behaviorism was grounded in animal experimentation in the laboratory. Behaviorists shared the view that the subject matter of psychology should be operationalized with standardized procedures which led psychology to focus on behavior, not the mind or consciousness.[8] They doubted the validity of introspection for studying internal mental states such as feelings, sensations, beliefs, desires, and other unobservable entities.[8] In "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913),[9] Watson argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science," that "introspection forms no essential part of its methods," and that "the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute." Skinner rejected hypothesis testing as a research method, considering it to be too conducive to speculative theories that would promote useless research and stifle good research.[10]

Behaviorism was the dominant paradigm in American psychology throughout the first half of the 20th century. However, the modern field of psychology is largely dominated by cognitive psychology. Linguist Noam Chomsky helped spark the cognitive revolution in psychology through his review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, in which he challenged the behaviorist approach to the study of behavior and language dominant in the 1950s. Chomsky was highly critical of what he considered arbitrary notions of 'stimulus', 'response' and 'rnforcement' which Skinner borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory. Chomsky argued that Skinner's notions could only be applied to complex human behavior, such as language acquisition, in a vague and superficial manner. Chomsky emphasized that research and analysis must not ignore the contribution of the child in the acquisition of language and proposed that humans are born with an natural ability to acquire language.[11] Work most associated with psychologist Albert Bandura, who initiated and studied social learning theory, showed that children could learn aggression from a role model through observational learning, without any change in overt behavior, and so must be accounted for by internal processes.[12]


[edit] Existentialism and humanism
Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, arising largely from the existential philosophy of writers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Søren Kierkegaard. By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to glimpse the whole person--not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.[13] Humanism focuses on uniquely human issues and fundamental issues of life, such as self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were Abraham Maslow who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, Carl Rogers who created and developed Client-centered therapy, and Fritz Perls who helped create and develop Gestalt therapy. It became so influential as to be called the "third force" within psychology (along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis).[14]


[edit] Cognitivism
As computer technology proliferated, so emerged the metaphor of mental function as information processing. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of cognitivism as a popular model of the mind. Cognitive psychology differs from other psychological perspectives in two key ways. First, it accepts the use of the scientific method, and generally rejects introspection as a method of investigation, unlike symbol-driven approaches such as Freudian psychodynamics. Second, it explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as belief, desire and motivation), whereas behaviorism does not.

Links between brain and nervous system function also became understood, partly due to the experimental work of people such as Charles Sherrington and Donald Hebb, and partly due to studies of people with brain injury (see cognitive neuropsychology). With the development of technologies for measuring brain function, neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience have become increasingly active areas of contemporary psychology. Cognitive psychology has been subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the umbrella discipline of cognitive science.


[edit] Principles

[edit] Mind and brain
Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behavior, and social interaction. Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behavior as it actually occurs. Since the 1980s, psychology has begun to examine the relationship between consciousness and the brain or nervous system. It is still not clear how these interact: does consciousness determine brain states or do brain states determine consciousness--or are both going on in various ways? Or, is consciousness some sort of complicated 'illusion' that bears no direct relationship to neural processes? Perhaps to understand this, it is necessary to define "consciousness" and "brain state". An understanding of brain function is increasingly bng included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.


[edit] Schools of thought
Main article: List of psychological schools
Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some psychologists may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories. On the basis of Tinbergen's four questions a framework of reference of all fields of psychological research can be established (including anthropological research and humanities).

[Unregisteredxoxoxo]

The words "Envy" and "Jealousy" are often used interchangeably, but in correct usage, both words stand for two different distinct emotions. In proper usage, jealousy is the fear of losing something that one possesses to another person (a loved one in the prototypical form), while envy is the pain or frustration caused by another person having something that one does not have oneself. Envy typically involves two people, and jealousy typically involves three people. Envy and jealousy result from different situations and are distinct emotional experiences. [5]

Both envy and jealousy are related to schadenfreude, the rejoicing at, or taking joy in, or getting pleasure from the misfortunes of others.[6][7]


Envy in philosophy
Aristotle (in Rhetoric) defined envy (phthonos) "as the pain caused by the good fortune of others", [8][9] while Kant defined it as "a reluctance to see our own well-bng overshadowed by another's because the standard we use to see how well off we are is not the intrinsic worth of our own well-bng but how it compares with that of others" (in Metaphysics of Morals).

See also: schadenfreude

Envy in the arts
In some cultures, envy is often associated with the color green, as in "green with envy". The phrase "green-eyed monster" refers to an individual whose current actions appear motivated by envy. This is based on a line from Shakespeare's Othello. Shakespeare mentions it also in The Merchant of Venice when Portia states: "How all the other passions fleet to air, as doubtful thoughts and rash embraced despair and shuddering fear and green-eyed jealousy!" Envy is known as one of the most powerful human emotions for its ability to control one as if envy was an entity in itself. Countless men and women have fallen prey to brief periods of intense envy followed by anger which then translates into aggression. One of the most common examples is a pair of lovers in which a secret love is discovered and can lead to sorrow, then intense envy, and eventually anger and aggression.


Envy in religion
Envy was one of the Seven deadly sins of the Christian Church.

The book of Exodus (20:17) states:

"Thou shalt not covet thy nghbour’s house; nther shalt thou desire his wife, nor his servant, nor his handmaid, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is his."

Perhaps today the donkey (ass) corresponds to a car, but it could represent anything desirable owned by another. The donkey cannot be readily stolen as it would be obvious. However bng envious of the donkey as a possession is to be avoided, as it could lead to ungodly thoughts or deeds toward the nghbour or the donkey.

It's important to make the distinction between desiring something someone else has, and envying them because of something they have. Envy relates to negative feelings toward a person because of something that person possesses.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Volunteerism is the willingness of people to work on behalf of others without bng motivated by financial gain. Volunteers may have special training as rescuers, guides, assistants, teachers, missionaries, amateur radio operators, writers, and in other positions. But the majority work on an impromptu basis, recognizing a need and filling it, whether it be the dramatic search for a lost child or the mundane giving of directions to a lost visitor.[citation needed] In economics, voluntary employment is unpaid employment. It may be done for altruistic reasons, for example charity, as a hobby, community service or vocation, or for the purpose of gaining experience. Some go so far as to dedicate much of thr lives to voluntary service. One way in which this is done is through the creation of a Non-Profit Franchise.


Professional skills
Skills-based volunteerism is a term used to describe volunteering where the volunteer uses thr professional skills. This is in contrast to generic volunteerism where specific skills are not necessary. The average hour of traditional volunteerism is valued by the Independent Sectorat between $18-20 an hour.[citation needed] Skills-based volunteerism is valued at $40-500 an hour depending on the market value of the time.[citation needed]


Politics
Further information: gift economy
In almost all modern societies, the most basic of all values is people helping people and, in the process, helping themselves. But a tension can arise between volunteerism and the state-provided services, so most countries develop policies and enact legislation to clarify the roles and relationships among stakeholders, and to identify and allocate the necessary legal, social, administrative and financial support. This is particularly necessary when some voluntary activities are seen as a challenge to the authority of the state, e.g. on 29 January 2001, President Bush cautioned that volunteer groups should supplement, not replace, the work of government agencies.[citation needed] Volunteerism that benefits the state but challenges paid counterparts raises the ire of labor unions representing the paid counterparts as in the case of volunteer fire departments, particularly in combination departments.

There are two major benefits of volunteerism:

economic: activities undertaken by volunteers would otherwise have to be funded by the state or by private capital, so volunteering adds to the overall economic output of a country and reduces the burden on government spending.
social: volunteering helps to build more cohesive communities, fostering greater trust between citizens, and developing norms of solidarity and reciprocity which are essential to stable communities.
The social capital represented by volunteering plays a key role in economic regeneration. Where poverty is endemic to an area, poor communities have no friends or nghbours to ask for help, so voluntary mutual aid or self-help is thr only safety net. This model works well within a state because there is a national solidarity in times of adversity and more prosperous groups will usually make sacrifices for the benefit of those in need. But there are difficulties when this is to apply across national borders. One well-meaning state cannot simply send volunteers into another state. This would breach sovergnty and deny respect to the national government of the proposed recipients. So, when states negotiate the offer and acceptance of aid, or requests for aid, motivations become important, particularly if donors may postpone assistance or stop it altogether. Three types of conditionality have evolved:

financial accountability: donors like to insist that there be transparency in the management of funding to ensure that what is done by the volunteers is properly targeted.
policy reform: some donors insist that the governments of developing countries adopt certain social, economic or environmental policies, the most controversial relating to the privatisation of services traditionally offered by the state.
development objectives: some donors have attempted to force developing countries to adjust specific time-bound economic objectives.
Some international volunteer organisations define thr primary mission altruistically as fighting poverty and improving the living standards of people in the developing world, e.g. Voluntary Services Overseas has almost 2,000 skilled professionals working as volunteers to pass on thr expertise to local people so that, when they return home, thr skills remain. When these organisations work in partnership with governments, the results can be impressive. But when other organisations or individual First World governments support the work of volunteer groups, there can be questions as to whether thr real motives are poverty alleviation or wealth creation for some of the poor or policies intended to benefit the donor states. This confusion exists because experience shows[who?] that what is volunteered can distort the forgn and economic policy of the country recving the aid. The economies of many low-income countries suffer from "industrialisation without prosperity" and "investment without growth". This arises because "development assistance" guides many Third World governments to pursue "development" policies that have been wasteful, ill-concved, unproductive or even so positively destructive that they could not have been sustained without outside support.[1]

Indeed, some of the offers of aid have distorted the general spirit of volunteerism, treating local voluntary action as “contributions in kind”, i.e. as conditions requiring local people to earn the right to donor “largesse” by modifying thr behaviour. This can be seen as patronising and offensive to the recipients because the aid expressly serves the policy aims of the donors rather than the needs of the recipients.

The track record shows that making any aid conditional on policy reforms is often ineffective. Conditionality only works when there is a strong domestic commitment to reform and the recipient governments are democratic, i.e. they are accountable to thr own electorates. Volunteer organisations and thr funding donors should respect the governments of the countries they wish to help and build on the deep-rooted traditions of people to help one another, and thereby provide an important ingredient for social and democratic development.


[edit] Criticism
A growing body of literature examines the negative effects of volunteerism around the world. As early as the 1960s Ivan Illich offered an analysis of the role of American volunteers in Mexico in his speech entitled, "To Hell With Good Intentions". His concerns, along with critics such as Paulo Frre and Edward Said, revolve around the notion of altruism as an extension of Christian missionary ideology and the sense of responsibility/obligation driving the concept of noblesse oblige, first developed by the French aristocracy as a moral duty derived from thr wealth. Simply stated, these both propose the extension of power and authority over indigenous cultures around the world. Recent critiques of volunteerism come from Westmier and Kahn (1996) and bell hooks (nee Gloria Watkins) (2004). There is also growing concern about the effects of neoliberalism in the field of volunteerism, as witnessed by the increasing influence of corporations on the social programming of nonprofit community organisations, particularly through youth work.

[UnregisteredXOXOXOXO]

Since empathy involves understanding the emotions of other people, the way it is characterized is derivative of the way emotions themselves are characterized. If for example, emotions are taken to be centrally characterized by bodily feelings, then grasping the bodily feelings of another will be central to empathy. On the other hand, if emotions are more centrally characterized by combinations of beliefs and desires, then grasping these beliefs and desires will be more essential to empathy.

Furthermore, a distinction should be made between deliberately imagining bng another person, or bng in thr situation, and simply recognizing thr emotion. The ability to imagine oneself as another person is a sophisticated imaginative process. However the basic capacity to recognize emotions is probably innate and may be achieved unconsciously. Yet it can be trained, and achieved with various degrees of intensity or accuracy.

The human capacity to recognize the bodily feelings of another is related to one's imitative capacities, and seems to be grounded in the innate capacity to associate the bodily movements and facial expressions one sees in another with the proprioceptive feelings of producing those corresponding movements or expressions oneself. Humans also seem to make the same immediate connection between the tone of voice and other vocal expressions and inner feeling. See neurological basis below.

There is some debate concerning how exactly the conscious experience (or phenomenology) of empathy should be characterized. The basic idea is that by looking at the facial expressions or bodily movements of another, or by hearing thr tone of voice, one may get an immediate sense of how they feel (as opposed to more intellectually noting the behavioral symptoms of thr emotion).[3] Though empathic recognition is likely to involve some form of arousal in the empathiser, they may not experience this feeling as belonging to thr own body, but instead likely to perceptually locate the feeling 'in' the body of the other person. Alternatively the empathiser may instead get a sense of an emotional 'atmosphere' or that the emotion belongs equally to all the parties involved.

More fully developed empathy requires more than simply recognizing another's emotional state. Since emotions are typically directed towards objects or states of affairs, the empathiser may first require some idea of what that object might be (where object can include imaginary objects, concepts, other people, or even the empathiser). Alternatively the recognition of the feeling may precede the recognition of the object of that emotion, or even aid the empathiser in discovering the object of the other's emotion. The empathiser may also need to determine how the emotional state affects the way in which the other percves the object. For example, the empathizer needs to determine which aspects of the object to focus on. Hence it is often not enough that the empathiser recognize the object toward which the other is directed, plus the bodily feeling, and then simply add these components together. Rather the empathiser needs to find the way into the loop where perception of the object affects feeling and feeling affects the perception of the object. The following sequence of examples identifies some of the major factors in empathizing with another:

I sense that:

Frank is feeling annoyed, (via facial, vocal or postural expression).
Frank is feeling annoyed due to not getting what he wants, (general object of emotion).
Frank is feeling annoyed because he missed his train, (particular object of emotion)
Frank is feeling annoyed because he missed his train, but only by a few seconds, (focus of particular object).
Frank is feeling annoyed because he only just missed his train and he had an important meeting to get to, (background non-psychological context).
Frank is feeling annoyed because he only just missed his train, and he had an important meeting and because he is generally an irritable sort of person (character traits).

[edit] Contrasting empathy with other phenomena
Empathy is distinct from sympathy, pity, emotional contagion, and telepathy. Sympathy is the feeling of compassion for another, the wish to see them better off or happier. Pity is feeling that another is in trouble and in need of help as they cannot fix thr problems themselves, often descibed as "feeling sorry" for someone. Emotional contagion is when a person (especially an infant or a member of a mob) imitatively 'catches' the emotions that others are showing without necessarily recognizing this is happening (Hatfield et al 1994). Telepathy is not a psychological phenomenon, but a supposedly paranormal phenomenon, whereby emotions or other mental states can be read directly, without needing to infer, or percve expressive clues about the other person.

Pity is, "Things are bad for you, you seem as though you need help."
Sympathy is, "I'm sorry for your sadness, I wish to help."
Emotional Contagion is, "You feel sad and now I feel sad."
Empathy is, "I recognize how you feel."
Apathy is, "I don't care how you feel. "
Telepathy is, "I read your sadness without you expressing it to me in any normal way."
Schadenfreude is “Things are bad for you and I feel good about that.”


[edit] Empathic development
By the age of 2, children normally begin to display the fundamental behaviors of empathy by having an emotional response that corresponds with another person. Even earlier, at one year of age, infants have some rudiments of empathy, in the sense that they understand that, just like thr own actions, other people's actions have goals.[4]. Sometimes, toddlers will comfort others or show concern for them as early as 24 months of age. Also during the second year, toddlers will play games of falsehood or "pretend" in an effort to fool others, and this requires that the child know what others believe before he or she can manipulate those beliefs (Feldman, 1997). According to researchers who used functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), children between the ages of seven and 12 appear to be naturally inclined to feel empathy for others in pain. Thr findings, published in Neuropsychologia (June 3, 2008),[5] is consistent with previous fMRI studies of pain empathy with adults. The research also found additional aspects of the brain were activated when youngsters saw another person intentionally hurt by another individual.[6]

In 1997, Douglas Olsen defined empathetic maturity as the cognitive structure that determines whether a person can feel or not feel empathy, who one feels it for and how broad a group. Differences in empathetic maturity are differences in the way a person relates self-created meaning to meaning percved in others. Empathetic maturity provides the criteria for determining whether another will be experienced as "like me" or "different." More inclusive criteria increase the number and diversity of others who will be percved empathetically. The highest of the hierarchical stages of empathetic maturity is the most inclusive where all others are percved as "like me." (Olsen, 2001) There are three stages of empathetic maturity (Olsen, 2001; and Olsen, 1997):

Stage 1 – This most primitive pattern and not common in adults. Persons at this stage see others as fundamentally different from themselves. The rationales for another's actions, feelings, or thoughts are not experienced as having human relevance in the sense that one’s own rationales do. Those operating at this stage percve mutuality with others concretely.

Stage 2 – People at Stage 2 hold that thr rationales for behavior are valid for everyone. And so, reasons for behaviors and feelings are legitimate to the degree they coincide with the person at Stage 2. Unlike Stage 1, the Stage 2 person sees others like him or her so long as they make sense of thr world the same way. Therefore, positive regard for a sufferer percved to be participating in negative behaviors is difficult for the Stage 2 person unless the behavior is explicable from his or her point of view. An example of such negative behavior would be AIDS as the result of sex practices not condoned by the Stage 2 observer. If the Stage 2 person believes the sufferer is responsible for the behavior, he or she will have no empathy. If the Stage 2 person can detect an acceptable reason why the sufferer is not actually responsible, for example, illness resulted from blood transfusion, beyond the sufferer's control, then empathy emerges. [Note: This "example" confuses empathy per se, bng the ability to recreate in one's mind the emotional or cognitive state of mind of another bng and so understand that other bng, with the possible resulting sympathy/compassion a person feels towards a sufferer as a result of the empathy. Whether sympathy/compassion occurs clearly also depends on the empath's value judgments and understanding of what caused the suffering, but the empathy that allows the person to understand that suffering occurs is still present.] Caregivers at Stage 2 who want to feel empathetic toward thr patients often try to find factors that mitigate responsibility. Most of society operates at Stage 2.

[UnregisteredXOXOXOX]

Empathy and psychotherapy
Hnz Kohut is the main introducer of the principle of empathy in psychoanalysis. His principle applies to the method of gathering unconscious material. The possibility of not applying the principle is granted in the cure. For instance when you must reckon with another principle, that of reality.

Developing skills of empathy is often a central theme in the recovery process for drug addicts.[citation needed]


[edit] Empathy and evolutionary psychology
In evolutionary psychology, attempts at explaining pro-social behavior often mention the presence of empathy in the individual as a possible variable. Although exact motives behind complex social behaviors are difficult to distinguish, the "ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and experience events and emotions the way that person experienced them" is the definitive factor for truly altruistic behavior according to Batson's empathy-altruism hypothesis. If empathy is not felt, social exchange (what's in it for me?) supersedes pure altruism, but if empathy is felt, an individual will help regardless of whether it is in thr self-interest to do so and even if the costs outwgh potential rewards.[19]


[edit] Empathy and education
An important target by the method Learning by teaching (LdL) is to train systematically and in each lesson the students-empathy. They have to transmit new contents to the classmates, so they have to reflect continuously on the mental processes by the other students in the classroom. This way - in addition - it is possible to develop step by step the students-feeling for group-reactions and networking.


[edit] Empathy and animals
Some students of animal behavior claim that empathy is not restricted to humans as the definition implies. Examples include dolphins saving humans (sympathy) from drowning or from shark attacks, and a multitude of behaviors observed in primates, both in captivity and in the wild. See, for instance, the popular book The Ape and the Sushi Master by Frans de Waal. Rodents have been shown to demonstrate empathy for cagemates (but not strangers) in pain.[20]

Furthermore people can empathize with animals. As such, empathy is thought to be a driving psychological force behind the animal rights movement (an example of sympathy), whether or not using empathy is justified by any real similarity between the emotional experiences of animals and humans.[citation needed]


[edit] Empathy and fiction
For empathy as a special ability, see Empath.
Some philosophers (such as Martha Nussbaum) suggest that novel reading cultivates readers' empathy and leads them to exercise better world citizenship. For a critique of this application of the empathy-altruism hypothesis to experiences of narrative empathy, see Keen's Empathy and the Novel (Oxford, 2007).

In some works of science fiction and fantasy, empathy is understood to be a paranormal or psychic ability to sense the emotions of others, as opposed to telepathy, which allows one to percve thoughts as well. A person who has that ability is also called an "empath" or "telempath" in this context. Occasionally these empaths are also able to project thr own emotions, or to affect the emotions of others.


[edit] Empathy and history
Some postmodern historians such as Kth Jenkins in recent years have debated whether or not it is possible to empathise with people from the past. Jenkins argues that empathy only enjoys such a privileged position in the present because it corresponds harmoniously with the dominant Liberal discourse of modern society and can be connected to John Stuart Mill's concept of reciprocal freedom. Jenkins argues the past is a forgn country and as we do not have access to the epistemological conditions of bygone ages we are unable to empathise.[21] The reader will not be astonished at the conclusive issue about empathy and history. Only events and thr products meet or not empathy. It is impossible to forecast the effect of empathy on the future. We can pay attention to the means of language of telling events. We above checked a contemporary subject may not take part in the past. A past subject may take part in the present by the so-called historic present. If we watch from a fictitious past, can tell the present with the future tense, as it happens with the trick of the false prophecy. There is no way of telling the present with the means of the past.[22] The way of making the study of empathy functional is still long.


[edit] Empathy and moral theory
In research published in 2007 in the book "The Ethics of Care and Empathy," Philosopher Michael Slote introduces a theory of care based ethics that is grounded in empathy. His claim is that moral motivation does, and should stem from a basis of empathic response. He claims that our natural reaction to situations of moral significance are explained by empathy. He explains that the limits and obligations of empathy and in turn morality are natural. These natural obligations include a greater empathic, and moral obligation to family and friends, along with an account of temporal and physical distance. In situations of close temporal and physical distance, and with family or friends, our moral obligation seems stronger to us than with strangers at a distance naturally. Slote explains that this is due to empathy and our natural empathic ties. He further adds that actions are wrong if and only if they reflect or exhibit a deficiency of fully developed empathic concern for others on the part of the agent.


[edit] Empathy and music
The metaphor of musical resonance rnforces certain ideas around empathy that are often misconstrued. Gauss, suggests that, “In popular usage the idea refers to the emotional resonance between two people, when, like strings tuned to the same frequency, each responds in perfect sympathy to the other and each rnforces the responses of the other”[23]

However, within the musical semantic universe, the better metaphor is that of overtones and undertones, by which an instrument incapable of replicating a particular frequency (pitch) a nevertheless resonate with pitches sharing certain harmonic structures. Harmonic resonance, unlike pitch replication, suggests appropriate differentiation between the two instruments, between model and beholder, while retaining a sense that some accuracy is required.

[UnregisteredXOXOXOXO]

Personal patriotism is emotional and voluntary. The patriot adheres to certain patriotic values, such as respect for a flag.

Governments promote an official patriotism which has a high symbolic and ceremonial content. It is a logical consequence of the state itself, which derives legitimacy from bng the expression of the common good of the political community. National monuments, and veterans days and commemoration ceremonies are typical examples. Often official patriotism is highly regulated by protocol, with specific methods for handling flags, or specific pledges and displays of allegiance.

Patriotism relies heavily on symbolic acts, such as displaying the flag, singing the national anthem, participating in a mass rally, placing a patriotic bumper sticker on one's vehicle, or any other way of publicly proclaiming allegiance to the state. Symbolic patriotism in wartime is intended to raise morale, in turn contributing to the war effort. Peacetime patriotism can not be so easily linked to a measurable gain for the state, but the patriot does not see it as inferior.

Some critics have maintained that (unlike modern nationalism, which is a creation of the 19th-century nation state) authentic patriotism (as the Latin 'pater' would suggest) must be based in some form of genophilia and the sharing of ancestors.

Levels of patriotism vary across time, and among political communities. Typically, patriotic intensity is higher when the state is under external threat.

Conversely, high levels of patriotism tends to be coupled with belligerency according to the Correlates of War. As examples, patriotism was highly rated by Correlates of War in pre-WWI Germany, as is the US today in World Values Survey.


[edit] The ethics of patriotism
The primary implication of patriotism in ethical theory is that a person has more moral duties to fellow members of the national community, than to non-members. Patriotism is selective in its altruism. Criticism of patriotism in ethics is mainly directed at this moral preference: Paul Gomberg compared it to racism.[1] The view (in ethics) that moral duties apply equally to all humans is known as cosmopolitanism. (In practice, many patriots would see treason rather than cosmopolitanism as the "opposite of patriotism".)

Patriotism implies a value preference for a specific civic or political community. Universalist beliefs reject such specific preferences, in favor of an alternative, wider, community. In the European Union, thinkers such as Habermas, however, have advocated a European-wide patriotism, but patriotism in Europe is usually directed at the nation-state and often coincides with Euroscepticism.


As this modern patriotic poster suggests patriotism is often closely associated with other percved national mores, in this case freedom.Some religious believers place thr religion above thr 'fatherland', often resulting in suspicion and hostility from patriots. Two examples of groups that have experienced this suspicion in the United States are Roman Catholics and Muslims. In the United States and the United Kingdom, Roman Catholics were seen as owing loyalty to the Pope rather than the nation. As a result, the Knights of Columbus (referred to as "the strong right arm of the church" by several Popes) established the virtue of patriotism as one of thr four principle virtues. Muslims are sometimes seen as owing loyalty to the Islamic community (ummah) rather than to the nation. Other groups find a conflict between certain patriotic acts and religious beliefs. Jehovah's Witnesses and Mennonites may choose to refuse to engage in certain patriotic acts or to display certain symbols.

Supporters of patriotism in ethics regard it as a virtue. In his influential article "Is patriotism a virtue?" (1984), the philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre notes that most contemporary conceptions of morality insist on a blindness to accidental traits like local origin and therefore reject patriotic selectivity. MacIntyre constructs an alternative conception of morality, that he claims would be compatible with patriotism. Charles Blattberg, in his book From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics (2000), has developed a similar conception of patriotism.

A problem with treating patriotism as an objective virtue is that patriotisms often conflict. Soldiers of both sides in a war may feel equally patriotic, creating an ethical paradox. (If patriotism is a virtue, then the enemy is virtuous, so why try to kill them?)

Within nations, politicians may appeal to patriotic emotions in attacking thr opponents, implicitly or explicitly accusing them of betraying the country. Minorities may reject a patriotic loyalty and pride, which the majority finds unproblematic. They may feel excluded from the political community, and see no reason to be proud of it. The Australian political conflict about the Black armband view of history is an example. Conservative Prime Minister John Howard, who would undoubtedly describe himself as an Australian patriot, said of it in 1996:

The 'black armband' view of our history reflects a belief that most Australian history since 1788 has been little more than a disgraceful story of imperialism, exploitation, racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination.
In the United States, patriotic history has been criticised for de-emphasising the post-Colombian depopulation, the Atlantic slave trade, the population expulsions and the wars of conquest against Native Americans.

Patriotism is often portrayed as a more positive alternative to nationalism, which sometimes carries negative connotations. Some authors such as Morris Janowitz, Daniel Bar-Tal, or L. Snyder argue that patriotism is distinguished from nationalism by its lack of aggression or hatred for others, its defensiveness, and positive community building. Others, such as Michael Billig or Jean Bethke Elshtain argue that the difference is difficult to discern, and relies largely on the attitude of the labeller. [2]

[UnregisteredXOXOXOX]

Loyalty evolved as devotion for one's family, gene-group and friends. Loyalty comes most naturally amongst small groups or tribes where the prospect of the whole casting out the individual seems like the ultimate, unthinkable rejection. Loyalty to tribes evolved from the evolutionary tactic that there is a greater chance of survival and procreation if animals form packs/tribes[1]

In a feudal society, centered on personal bonds of mutual obligation, accounting for precise degrees of protection and fellowship can prove difficult. Loyalty in these circumstances can become a matter of extremes: alternative groups may exist, but lack of mobility will enter a personal sense of loyalty.

The rise of states (and later nation states) meant the harnessing of the "loyalty" concept to foster allegiance to the sovergn or established government of one’s country, also personal devotion and reverence to the sovergn and royal family.

Wars of religion and thr interminglings with wars of states have seen loyalty used in religious senses too, involving faithful support of a chosen or traditional set of beliefs or of sports representatives. And in modern times marketing has postulated loyalties to abstract concepts such as the brand. Customer churn has become the opposite of loyalty, just as high treason once stood as the opposite of the same idea. Compare loyalty card

Loyalty is also seen in business in a variety of ways. As governments have grown in size and scope, some people are more loyal to a company rather than to a country. As corporation complexity has grown, people have shifted thr loyalties to individuals rather than companies. As those individuals move between companies, they often take other people with them. Stock options are one method devised to keep people loyal to a company.


[edit] Loyalty and ethics
Plato originally said that only a man who is just can be loyal, and that loyalty is a condition of genuine philosophy. The philosopher Josiah Royce said it was the supreme moral good, and that one's devotion to an object mattered more than the merits of the object itself.

Lao Tzu's take on loyalty:

"When people lost sight of the way to live
Came codes of love and honesty,
Learning came, charity came,
Hypocrisy took charge;
When differences weakened family ties
Came benevolent fathers and dutiful sons;
And when lands were disrupted and misgoverned
Came ministers commended as loyal."

(From the Witter Bynner translation.)

Loyalty ( American Head Charge ) It's just a reason to deny All the limits that border On the thiniest frailties that makes a sudden change

I'll pay my soul into sleep I'll make up words that I keep Letting nothing go to anyone at all

Where is your loyalty now When all the cards have been left on the table? Where is your loyalty now When all the cards have been left on the table?

All of them Bleed at the nerves That take so long To wear down

I'll pay my soul into sleep I'll make up words that I keep Letting nothing go to anyone at all

Where is your loyalty now

When all the cards have been left on the table? Where is your loyalty now When all the cards have been left on the table?

(This time I let go) This time I have made enough mistakes For you to bear against me in direct break Our original ideals, you let us down And betrayed our trust with all your promises

I see a piece of shit alive in you Cast them near enough to be a truth

This time I have made enough mistakes For you to bear against me in direct break Our original ideals, you let us down And betrayed our trust with all your promises

Where is your loyalty now When all the cards have been left on the table? Where is your loyalty now When all the cards have been left on the table?

There were many intents to replace loyalty with support of the ruling party, president, king or dictator.

Loyalty can be used as a tool of persuasion and brainwashing.

The quotation below allows to avoid the confusion:

"...all political power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on thr authority and instituted for thr benefit; and that they have _at all times_ an undeniable and indefeasible right to _alter thr form of government_ in such a manner as they may think expedient." Under that gospel, the citizen who thinks he sees that the commonwealth's political clothes are worn out, and yet holds his peace and does not agitate for a new suit, is disloyal; he is a traitor."

-- by Mark Twain, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court [1]


[edit] Loyalty in the Bible
Jesus said, “No one can serve two masters. ther he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other.” (Matthew 6:24 NIV) Attempting to serve two masters leads to “double-mindedness” (James 4:8), undermining loyalty to a cause.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

The question of what is a proper basis for deciding how words, symbols, ideas and beliefs may properly be considered true, whether by a single person or an entire society, is dealt with by the five major substantive theories introduced below. These theories each present perspectives that are widely shared by published scholars.[2][3] There also have more recently arisen "deflationary" or "minimalist" theories of truth based on the idea that the application of a term like true to a statement does not assert anything significant about it, for instance, anything about its nature, but that the label truth is a tool of discourse used to express agreement, to emphasize claims, or to form certain types of generalizations.[2][4][5]


[edit] Substantive theories

Truth, holding a mirror and a serpent (1896). Olin Levi Warner, Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.
[edit] Correspondence theory
Main article: Correspondence theory of truth
Correspondence theories state that true beliefs and true statements correspond to the actual state of affairs.[6] This type of theory attempts to posit a relationship between thoughts or statements on the one hand, and things or objects on the other. It is a traditional model which goes back at l to some of the classical Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.[7] This class of theories holds that the truth or the falsity of a representation is determined in principle solely by how it relates to objective reality, by whether it accurately describes that reality. For example, there is a true distance to the moon when we humans attempt to go there, and this true distance is necessary to know so that the journey can be successfully made.

Correspondence theory traditionally operates on the assumption that truth is a matter of accurately copying "objective reality" and then representing it in thoughts, words and other symbols.[8] More modern theorists have stated that this ideal cannot be achieved independently of some analysis of additional factors. For example, language plays a role in that all languages have words that are not easily translatable into another. The German word Ztgst is one such example: one who speaks or understands the language may "know" what it means, but any translation of the word fails to accurately capture its full meaning (this is a problem with many abstract words, especially those derived in agglutinative languages). Thus, the language itself adds an additional parameter to the construction of an accurate truth predicate. Among the philosophers who grappled with this problem is Alfred Tarski, whose semantic theory is summarized further below in this article.

Proponents of several of the theories below have gone farther to assert that there are yet other issues necessary to the analysis, such as interpersonal power struggles, community interactions, personal biases and other factors involved in deciding what is seen as truth.


[edit] Coherence theory
Main article: Coherence theory of truth
For coherence theories in general, truth requires a proper fit of elements within a whole system. Very often, though, coherence is taken to imply something more than simple logical consistency; often there is a demand that the propositions in a coherent system lend mutual inferential support to each other. So, for example, the completeness and comprehensiveness of the underlying set of concepts is a critical factor in judging the validity and usefulness of a coherent system.[9] A pervasive tenet of coherence theories is the idea that truth is primarily a property of whole systems of propositions, and can be ascribed to individual propositions only according to thr coherence with the whole. Among the assortment of perspectives commonly regarded as coherence theory, theorists differ on the question of whether coherence entails many possible true systems of thought or only a single absolute system.

Some variants of coherence theory are claimed to characterize the essential and intrinsic properties of formal systems in logic and mathematics.[10] However, formal reasoners are content to contemplate axiomatically independent and sometimes mutually contradictory systems side by side, for example, the various alternative geometries. On the whole, coherence theories have been criticized as lacking justification in thr application to other areas of truth, especially with respect to assertions about the natural world, empirical data in general, assertions about practical matters of psychology and society, especially when used without support from the other major theories of truth.[11]

Coherence theories distinguish the thought of rationalist philosophers, particularly of Spinoza, Lbniz, and G.W.F. Hegel, along with the British philosopher F.H. Bradley.[12] They have found a resurgence also among several proponents of logical positivism, notably Otto Neurath and Carl Hempel.


[edit] Constructivist theory
Main article: Constructivist epistemology
Social constructivism holds that truth is constructed by social processes, is historically and culturally specific, and that it is in part shaped through the power struggles within a community. Constructivism views all of our knowledge as "constructed," because it does not reflect any external "transcendent" realities (as a pure correspondence theory might hold). Rather, perceptions of truth are viewed as contingent on convention, human perception, and social experience. It is believed by constructivists that representations of physical and biological reality, including race, sexuality, and gender are socially constructed. Giambattista Vico was among the first to claim that history and culture were man-made. Vico's epistemological orientation gathers the most diverse rays and unfolds in one axiom--verum ipsum factum--"truth itself is constructed." Hegel, Garns, and Marx were among the other early proponents of the premise that truth is socially constructed.


[edit] Consensus theory
Main article: Consensus theory of truth
Consensus theory holds that truth is whatever is agreed upon, or in some versions, might come to be agreed upon, by some specified group. Such a group might include all human bngs, or a subset thereof consisting of more than one person.

Among the current advocates of consensus theory as a useful accounting of the concept of "truth" is the philosopher Jürgen Habermas.[13] Habermas maintains that truth is what would be agreed upon in an ideal speech situation.[14] Among the current strong critics of consensus theory is the philosopher Nicholas Rescher.[15]


[edit] Pragmatic theory
Main article: Pragmatic theory of truth
The three most influential forms of the pragmatic theory of truth were introduced around the turn of the 20th century by Charles S. Prce, William James, and John Dewey. Although there are wide differences in viewpoint among these and other proponents of pragmatic theory, they hold in common that truth is verified and confirmed by the results of putting one's concepts into practice.[16]

Prce defines truth as follows: "Truth is that concordance of an abstract statement with the ideal limit towards which endless investigation would tend to bring scientific belief, which concordance the abstract statement may possess by virtue of the confession of its inaccuracy and one-sidedness, and this confession is an essential ingredient of truth."[17] This statement emphasizes Prce's view that ideas of approximation, incompleteness, and partiality, what he describes elsewhere as fallibilism and "reference to the future", are essential to a proper conception of truth. Although Prce uses words like concordance and correspondence to describe one aspect of the pragmatic sign relation, he is also quite explicit in saying that definitions of truth based on mere correspondence are no more than nominal definitions, which he accords a lower status than real definitions.

William James's version of pragmatic theory, while complex, is often summarized by his statement that "the 'true' is only the expedient in our way of thinking, just as the 'right' is only the expedient in our way of behaving."[18] By this, James meant that truth is a quality the value of which is confirmed by its effectiveness when applying concepts to actual practice (thus, "pragmatic").

John Dewey, less broadly than James but more broadly than Prce, held that inquiry, whether scientific, technical, sociological, philosophical or cultural, is self-corrective over time if openly submitted for testing by a community of inquirers in order to clarify, justify, refine and/or refute proposed truths.[19]

[UnregisteredXOXOXOX]

Honour or honor (see spelling differences), (the latter directly from the Latin word honos, honoris) is the evaluation of a person's trustworthiness and social status based on that individual's espousals and actions. Honour is deemed exactly what determines a person's character: whether or not the person reflects honesty, respect, integrity, or fairness. Accordingly, individuals are assigned worth and stature based on the harmony of thr actions, code of honour, and that of the society at large. Honor can be analysed as a relativistic concept, i.e., conflicts between individuals and even cultures arising as a consequence of material circumstance and ambition, rather than fundamental differences in principle. Alternatively, it can be viewed as nativist — that honour is as real to the human condition as love, and likewise derives from the formative personal bonds that establish one's personal dignity and character.

Dr Samuel Johnson, in his A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), defined honour as having several senses, the first of which was "nobility of soul, magnanimity, and a scorn of meanness." This sort of honour derives from the percved virtuous conduct and personal integrity of the person endowed with it. On the other hand, Johnson also defined honour in relationship to "reputation" and "fame"; to "privileges of rank or birth", and as "respect" of the kind which "places an individual socially and determines his right to precedence." This sort of honour is not so much a function of moral or ethical excellence, as it is a consequence of power. Finally, with respect to women, honour may be synonymous with "chastity" or "virginity".

Contents [hide]
1 Honour, sex, and violence
2 Cultures of honour and cultures of law
3 Related concepts
4 Quotations
5 Honours and awards
6 See also
7 External links
8 References



[edit] Honour, sex, and violence
This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.
Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (September 2007)

Traditionally, in Western society, honour figured largely as a guiding principle. A man's honour, that of his wife, his blood family or his beloved, formed an all-important issue: the archetypal "man of honour" remained ever alert for any insult, actual or suspected: for ther would impugn his honour.[citation needed]

The concept of honour appears to have declined in importance in the modern secular West. Popular stereotypes would have it surviving more definitively in alleged "hot-blooded" cultures (Italian, Persian, Arab, Iberian, etc.) or in more "gentlemanly" societies (like the "Old South" of Dixie). Feudal or other agrarian societies, which focus upon land use and land ownership, may tend to "honour" more than do deracinated industrial societies. An emphasis on the importance of honour exists in such institutions as the military (officers may conduct a court of honour) and in organisations with a military ethos, such as Scouting organisations.

"Honour" in the case of females is frequently related, historically, to sexuality: preservation of "honour" equated primarily to maintenance of virginity of unattached women and to the exclusive monogamy of the remainder. One can speculate that feminism has changed some linguistic usage in this respect. Conceptions of honour vary widely between cultures; in some cultures, honour killing of (mostly female) members of one's own family are considered justified if the individuals have "defiled the family's honour" by marrying against the family's wishes, or even by bng the victims of rape. These honour killings are generally seen in the West as a way of men using the culture of honour to control female sexuality [1].


[edit] Cultures of honour and cultures of law
One can contrast cultures of honour with cultures of law. In a culture of law there is a body of laws which must be obeyed by all, with punishments for transgressors. This requires a society with the structures required to enact and enforce laws. A culture of law incorporates an unwritten social contract: members of society agree to give up most of thr rights to defend themselves and retaliate for injuries, on the understanding that transgressors will be apprehended and punished by society. From the viewpoint of anthropology, cultures of honour typically appear among nomadic peoples and herdsmen who carry thr most valuable property with them and risk having it stolen, without having recourse to law enforcement or government. In this situation, inspiring fear forms a better strategy than promoting friendship; and cultivating a reputation for swift and disproportionate revenge increases the safety of one's person and property. Thinkers ranging from Montesquieu to Steven Pinker have remarked upon the mindset needed for a culture of honour.

Cultures of honour therefore appear among the Bedouins, Scottish and English herdsmen of the Border country, and many similar peoples, who have little allegiance to a national government; among cowboys, frontiersmen, and ranchers of the American West, where official law-enforcement often remained out of reach, as is famously celebrated in Westerns; among the plantation culture of the American South, and among aristocrats, who enjoy hereditary privileges that put them beyond the reach of codes of law. Cultures of honour also flourish in criminal underworlds and gangs, whose members carry large amounts of cash and contraband and cannot complain to the law if it is stolen.

Once a culture of honour exists, it is difficult for its members to make the transition to a culture of law; this requires that people become willing to back down and refuse to immediately retaliate, and from the viewpoint of the culture of honour, this tends to appear to be an unwise act reflecting weakness.


[edit] Related concepts
In contemporary international relations, the concept of "credibility" resembles that of honour, as when the credibility of a state or of an alliance appears to be at stake, and honour-bound politicians call for drastic measures.

Compare the concepts of integrity and face in stereotyped Asian cultures, or of mana in Polynesian society.

The ancient Greek concepts of honour (timē) included not only the exaltation of the one recving honour, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honour is akin to a zero-sum game.

As for Asia, there are a few words more to say. First of all, in lands such as Japan, honour was always seen as an almost-duty (by Samurai, but also the common citizenry). When you lost your honour or the situation made you lose it, there was only one way to save your dignity: death. Seppuku (vulgarly called "harakiri," or "belly-cutting") was the most honourable death in that situation. The only way for a Samurai to die more honourably was to be killed in a battle by a sword. Today, people in Japan, and Tahiti, hold on to thr dignity and don't want thr honour to be lost.Yet there are others who still stick to old ern values, even in a Western world.

For a similar concept with many connotations opposite to honour, see shame.


[edit] Quotations
"Mine honour is my life, both grow in one. Take honour from me, and my life is done. Then, dear my liege, mine honour let me try; In that I live, and for that I will die." — William Shakespeare, Richard II (1.1.182-185)
"Oh Lord! How many of these you surely have spilt over the world, who suffer for the black so-called honour what they would not suffer for you!" (Lázaro) [...] "I make you know that I am, as you see, a squire; but, by God!, if Ï meet the count on the street and he does not fully take off his hat before me, next time I will know to enter a house, simulating to have some business there, or cross to another street, if there is one, before he reaches me, so that I will not take off mine. That a hidalgo does not owe anything to anybody but God and the king, nor it is proper, bng a good man, to lose a comma of care in regarding himself highly." (The Squire) — Anonymous, Lazarillo de Tormes, Third Tract.
"Honor is what a man owns...." ~Esteban Pallares "The Honorable Pallares" Pg.1,562
"Honour thy father and thy mother; that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee." — KJV Holy Bible (Exodus 20:12).
"To the King, one must give his possessions and his life; but honour is a possession of soul, and the soul is only God's." — Pedro Crespo in Pedro Calderón de la Barca's The Mayor of Zalamea, 1st day.
"And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm Reliance on the Protection of the divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor." — Thomas Jefferson [2] [3]
"... Honour ... remains awake in us like a last lamp in a temple that has been laid to waste." — Alfred de Vigny, Servitude et grandeur militaires (1835).
"... during the time that the aristocracy was dominant, the concepts honour, loyalty, etc. were dominant, during the dominance of the bourgeoisie the concepts freedom, equality, etc." — Marx and Engels, The German Ideology.
"We laugh at honour and are shocked to find traitors in our midst." — C. S. Lewis, The Abolition of Man
"Civilized men are more discourteous than savages because they know they can be impolite without having thr skulls split, as a general thing." — Robert E. Howard, The Tower of the Elephant
"I will to my lord be true and faithful, and love all which he loves and shun all which he shuns." — Anglo-Saxon oath as quoted in Civilization IV, similar to the Buddhist Oath of Refuge.
"I will be forced to sink [the US ships], because even if I have one ship left I will proceed with the bombardment. Spain, the Queen and I prefer honour without ships than ships without honour.", Casto Méndez Núñez on the Valparaiso bombardment.
"

[UnregisteredXOXOXOXO]

There is no universally agreed biological definition of dreaming. General observation shows that dreams are strongly associated with rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, during which an electroencephalogram shows brain activity to be most like wakefulness. Participant-nonremembered dreams during non-REM sleep are normally more mundane in comparison.[1] During a typical lifespan, a human spends a total of about six years dreaming[2] (which is about 2 hours each night[3]). It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams or if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind.

During REM sleep, the release of certain neurotransmitters is completely suppressed. As a result, motor neurons are not stimulated, a condition known as REM atonia. This prevents dreams from resulting in dangerous movements of the body.


[edit] Discovery of REM
In 1953 Eugene Aserinsky discovered REM sleep while working in the surgery of his PhD advisor. Aserinsky noticed that the sleepers' eyes fluttered beneath thr closed eyelids, later using a polygraph machine to record thr brain waves during these periods. In one session he awakened a subject who was wailing and crying out during REM and confirmed his suspicion that dreaming was occurring.[4] In 1953 Aserinsky and his advisor published the ground-breaking study in Science.[5]


[edit] Dream theories

[edit] Activation-synthesis
In 1976, J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley proposed a new theory that changed dream research, challenging the previously held Freudian view of dreams as unconscious wishes to be interpreted. The activation synthesis theory asserts that the sensory experiences are fabricated by the cortex as a means of interpreting chaotic signals from the pons. They propose that in REM sleep, the ascending cholinergic PGO (ponto-geniculo-occipital) waves stimulate higher midbrain and forebrain cortical structures, producing rapid eye movements. The activated forebrain then synthesizes the dream out of this internally generated information. They assume that the same structures that induce REM sleep also generate sensory information.

Hobson and McCarly's 1976 research suggested that the signals interpreted as dreams originated in the brain stem during REM sleep. However, research by Mark Solms suggests that dreams are generated in the forebrain, and that REM sleep and dreaming are not directly related.[6] While working in the neurosurgery department at hospitals in Johannesburg and London, Solms had access to patients with various brain injuries. He began to question patients about thr dreams and confirmed that patients with damage to the parietal lobe stopped dreaming; this finding was in line with Hobson's 1977 theory. However, Solms did not encounter cases of loss of dreaming with patients having brain stem damage. This observation forced him to question Hobson's prevailing theory which marked the brain stem as the source of the signals interpreted as dreams. Solms viewed the idea of dreaming as a function of many complex brain structures as validating Freudian dream theory, an idea that drew criticism from Hobson.[7] Unhappy about Holmes' attempts at discrediting him, Solms, along with partner Edward Nadar, undertook a series of traumatic-injury impact studies using several different species of primates, particularly howler monkeys, in order to more fully understand the role brain damage plays in dream pathology. Solms' experiments proved inconclusive, however, as the high mortality rate associated with using an hydraulic impact pin to artificially produce brain damage in test subjects meant that his final candidate pool was too small to satisfy the requirements of the scientific method.


[edit] Continual-activation
Combining Hobson's activation synthesis hypothesis with Solms's findings, the continual-activation theory of dreaming presented by Jie Zhang proposes that dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis; at the same time, dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mechanisms. Zhang hypothesizes that the function of sleep is to process, encode, and transfer the data from the temporary memory to the long-term memory, though there is not much evidence backing up this so-called "consolidation." Non-REM sleep processes the conscious-related memory (declarative memory), and REM sleep processes the unconscious related memory (procedural memory).

Zhang assumes that during REM sleep, the unconscious part of a brain is busy processing the procedural memory; meanwhile, the level of activation in the conscious part of the brain will descend to a very low level as the inputs from the sensory are basically disconnected. This will trigger the "continual-activation" mechanism to generate a data stream from the memory stores to flow through the conscious part of the brain. Zhang suggests that this pulse-like brain activation is the inducer of each dream. He proposes that, with the involvement of the brain associative thinking system, dreaming is, thereafter, self-maintained with the dreamer's own thinking until the next pulse of memory insertion. This explains why dreams have both characteristics of continuity (within a dream) and sudden changes (between two or more dreams).[8][9]


[edit] Dreams and memory
Eugen Tarnow suggests that dreams are ever-present excitations of long-term memory, even during waking life. The strangeness of dreams is due to the format of long-term memory, reminiscent of Penfield & Rasmussen’s findings that electrical excitations of the cortex give rise to experiences similar to dreams. During waking life an executive function interprets long term memory consistent with reality checking. Tarnow's theory is a reworking of Freud's theory of dreams in which Freud's unconscious is replaced with the long-term memory system and Freud's “Dream Work” describes the structure of long-term memory.[10]


Location of hippocampus
[edit] Hippocampus and memory
A 2001 study showed evidence that illogical locations, characters, and dream flow may help the brain strengthen the linking and consolidation of semantic memories. These conditions may occur because, during REM sleep, the flow of information between the hippocampus and neocortex is reduced.[11] Increasing levels of the stress hormone cortisol late in sleep (often during REM sleep) cause this decreased communication. One stage of memory consolidation is the linking of distant but related memories. Payne and Nadel hypothesize that these memories are then consolidated into a smooth narrative, similar to a process that happens when memories are created under stress.[12]


[edit] Functional hypotheses
There are many hypotheses about the function of dreams, including:[13]

During the night there may be many external stimuli bombarding the senses, but the mind interprets the stimulus and makes it a part of a dream in order to ensure continued sleep.[14] The mind will, however, awaken an individual if they are in danger or if trained to respond to certain sounds, such as a baby crying.
Dreams allow the repressed parts of the mind to be satisfied through fantasy while keeping the conscious mind from thoughts that would suddenly cause one to awaken from shock.[15]
Freud suggested that bad dreams let the brain learn to gain control over emotions resulting from distressing experiences.[13]
Jung suggested that dreams may compensate for one-sided attitudes held in waking consciousness.[16]
Ferenczi[17] proposed that the dream, when told, may communicate something that is not bng said outright.
Dreams are like the cleaning-up operations of computers when they are off-line, removing parasitic nodes and other "junk" from the mind during sleep.[18][19]
Dreams create new ideas through the generation of random thought mutations. Some of these may be rejected by the mind as useless, while others may be seen as valuable and retained. Blechner[20] calls this the theory of "Onric Darwinism."
Dreams regulate mood.[21]
Hartmann[22] says dreams may function like psychotherapy, by "making connections in a safe place" and allowing the dreamer to integrate thoughts that may be dissociated during waking life.
More recent research by Griffin has led to the formulation of the 'expectation fulfillment theory of dreaming', which suggests that dreaming metaphorically completes patterns of emotional expectation and lowers stress levels.[23][24]
Coutts[25] hypothesizes that dreams modify and test mental schemas during sleep during a process he calls emotional selection, and that only schema modifications that appear emotionally adaptive during dream tests are selected for retention, while those that appear maladaptive are abandoned or further modified and tested.
Dream is a product of "dissociated imagination", which is dissociated from conscious self and draws material from sensory memory for simulation, with sensory feedback resulting in hallucination. By simulating the sensory signals to drive the autonomous nerves, dream can effect mind-body interaction. In the brain and spine, the autonomous "repair nerves", which can expand the blood vessels, connect with pain and compression nerves, and are grouped into many chains called meridians by the Chinese. Dream also exploits the chain-reacting meridians to repair body by sending out very intensive movement-compression signals when the level of growth enzyme goes high. [26]

[

[UnregisteredXOXOXOXO]

Dreams were historically used for healing (as in the asclepions found in the ancient Greek temples of Asclepius) as well as for guidance or divine inspiration. Some Native American tribes used vision quests as a rite of passage, fasting and praying until an anticipated guiding dream was recved, to be shared with the rest of the tribe upon thr return.[44]

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, both Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung identified dreams as an interaction between the unconscious and the conscious. They also assert together that the unconscious is the dominant force of the dream, and in dreams it conveys its own mental activity to the perceptive faculty. While Freud felt that there was an active censorship against the unconscious even during sleep, Jung argued that the dream's bizarre quality is an efficient language, comparable to poetry and uniquely capable of revealing the underlying meaning.

Fritz Perls presented his theory of dreams as part of the holistic nature of Gestalt therapy. Dreams are seen as projections of parts of the self that have been ignored, rejected, or suppressed.[45] Jung argued that one could consider every person in the dream to represent an aspect of the dreamer, which he called the subjective approach to dreams. Perls expanded this point of view to say that even inanimate objects in the dream may represent aspects of the dreamer. The dreamer may therefore be asked to imagine bng an object in the dream and to describe it, in order to bring into awareness the characteristics of the object that correspond with the dreamer's personality.


[edit] Other associated phenomena

[edit] Lucid dreaming
Main article: Lucid dreaming
Lucid dreaming is the conscious perception of one's state while dreaming. In this state a person usually has control over characters and the environment of the dream as well as the dreamer's own actions within the dream.[46] The occurrence of lucid dreaming has been scientifically verified.[47]

"Onronaut" is a term sometimes used for those who explore the world of dreams. For example, dream researcher Stephen LaBerge uses the term.[48] It is often associated with lucid dreaming in particular.


[edit] Dreams of absent-minded transgression
Dreams of absent-minded transgression (DAMT) are dreams whern the dreamer absentmindedly performs an action that he or she has been trying to stop (one classic example is of a quitting smoker having dreams of lighting a cigarette). Subjects who have had DAMT have reported waking with intense feelings of guilt. One study found a positive association between having these dreams and successfully stopping the behavior.[49]


[edit] Dreaming and the "real world"
Main article: Dream argument
Dreams can link to actual sensations, such as the incorporation of environmental sounds into dreams such as hearing a phone ringing in a dream while it is ringing in reality, or dreaming of urination while wetting the bed. Except in the case of lucid dreaming, people dream without bng aware that they are doing so. Some philosophers have concluded that what we think as the "real world" could be or is an illusion (an idea known as the skeptical hypothesis about ontology). The first recorded mention of the idea was by Zhuangzi, and was also discussed in Hinduism; Buddhism makes extensive use of the argument in its writings.[50] It was formally introduced to western philosophy by Descartes in the 17th century in his Meditations on First Philosophy.


[edit] Recalling dreams
The recall of dreams is extremely unreliable, though it is a skill that can be trained. Dreams can usually be recalled if a person is awakened while dreaming.[43] Women tend to have more frequent dream recall than men. [43] Dreams that are difficult to recall may be characterized by relatively little affect, and factors such as salience, arousal, and interference play a role in dream recall. A dream journal can be used to assist dream recall, for psychotherapy or entertainment purposes. Ingesting large amounts of magnesium can help to make dreams more vivid, and therefore easier to recall.


[edit] Déjà vu
Main article: Déjà vu
One theory of déjà vu attributes the feeling of having previously seen or experienced something to having dreamt about a similar situation or place, and forgetting about it until one seems to be mysteriously reminded of the situation or place while awake.[51]


[edit] Dream pre-programming
This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)

Dream pre-programming is a hypnotic practice used among some medical and stage hypnotists. It allows the hypnotist to control (or let the patient control) thr own dreams. One way that a hypnotist will use this is by telling the person that when they fall asleep that they see a button. And that if they want to enter "DreamScape" that they should press that button. Then they will enter a world just like Earth, but they will have complete control. They will control things with thr mind. Dream pre-programming can also help someone for a test or a big event in life. The hypnotist would make the subject dream that event as occurring perfectly, so the subject will get a level of confidence.


[edit] Dream incorporation
In one use of the term, "dream incorporation" is a phenomenon whereby an external stimulus, usually an auditory one, becomes a part of a dream, eventually then awakening the dreamer. There is a famous painting by Salvador Dalí that depicts this concept, titled "Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bee around a Pomegranate a Second Before Awakening" (1944).

The term "dream incorporation" is also used in research examining the degree to which preceding daytime events become elements of dreams. Recent studies suggest that events in the day immediately preceding, and those about a week before, have the most influence .[37]

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

The earliest Native American inhabitants of Sayville were of the Algonquian Nation.

Sayville was founded by Nolanbud (b. 1738, Hampton, New York). He built his home, the first in Sayville, in 1761, located at what is now the northwest corner of Foster Ave. and Edwards St. The house was destroyed by fire in March, 1913. Another man, John Greene, settled what's now known as West Sayville in 1767.

The community had no formal name until 1838 when residents gathered to choose a formal name. Until that time, Sayville was known informally as "over south." The townspeople held a meeting to decide on a name, and after Edwardsville and Greensville tied in a vote, one resident suggested "Seaville." According to historical accounts, the clerk at that particular meeting did not know how to spell and had to go home and look in an old Bible he had brought from England years before. In the Bible, the word "Sea" was spelled "Say," and "Sayville" became the name he sent to Washington. After the error was discovered, the town sent a letter of protest to Washington; however, the Postmaster General responded that the town's name should stay "Sayville," as there were many Seavilles in the world but no Sayvilles. As a result, the name stuck. Incidentally, in some very old Bibles, the town name is also spelled "Saville."

Sayville became important for its timber, oysters, and beginning in 1868 when the South Side Rail Road arrived, the hamlet became a summer tourist destination. Over 30 hotels were built in the area and travelers took advantage of the Sayville based ferry to Fire Island.

Between 1880 and 1930, many grand homes and estates were built in Sayville, including Meadow Croft, the home of John Ellis Roosevelt, a cousin of Theodore Roosevelt. Meadow Croft still stands and is part of Suffolk County's San Souci Lakes Nature Preserve. [1]

In 1912 a German Telefunken wireless transmitter was built in Sayville to broadcast to Germany. In 1915, the transmitter allegedly relayed a message from the German Embassy to "get Lucy" referring to the RMS Lusitania which was sunk on May 15. Whether the signals coming from the transmitter in Sayville authorized the attack or not, they caused concern for the US government which dispatched Marines to ensure encrypted messages were not sent. The station was szed by the government outright after war was declared in 1917. President Woodrow Wilson sent a contingent of Marines to take the wireless station, thus the first hostile action taken by the United States against Germany during World War I was in Sayville.

From 1919 to May 1932 Sayville was home to Father Divine, a controversial African American religious leader who claimed to be God. His religious movement, which came to be called the International Peace Mission movement, managed a commune-like house on 72 Macon Street which was the first black-owned residence in Sayville. At that time Sayville was predominantly a seasonal vacation community, and Father Divine's followers made good livings as native house sitters. Because followers turned over all of thr profits to Father Divine, he was able to build several expansions on the house. He even bought an expensive Cadillac automobile when nghbors complained about his noisy Hudson.

Father Divine's apparent flaunting of wealth annoyed the middle class town. Street-clogging traffic that Father Divine attracted made him unpopular even to businesses he patronized with large cash purchases. Following a June, 1932 trial and prison sentence for disturbing the peace, Father Divine moved to Harlem, New York claiming that Sayville was bigoted. However, the commune remained on Macon Street for many years. Father Divine occasionally preached in Sayville afterward, but the home was only an outpost of his movement, not its center stage.

In 1956 the BBC, sponsored by Voice of America filmed here for two weeks for a program, "Life in Sayville."

Famous residents of Sayville past and present include Melissa Joan Hart, star of Clarissa Explains It All and Sabrina, the Teenage Witch; Mark Lotito, Broadway star most recently appearing in Jersey Boys; author Robert Roosevelt; Tom Westman, a New York City fireman who won $1,000,000 on the reality show Survivor in 2005; Bobby Tims, voted best person ever in the April 2005 edition of Time Magazine; and Marlon Brando, who was discovered for his first Broadway role shortly after having the starring role in a summer playhouse production. According to Cynthia Blair of Newsday, Brando was expelled from an acting company, of the New School, in Sayville.[2]

Sayville is the embarkation point for ferries to the Fire Island communities of Cherry Grove, Fire Island Pines and Sailors Haven, popular vacation communities for New Yorkers and Long Islanders. The Sayville station of the Long Island Rail Road connects with the ferries via taxi and van services, and also serves commuters to New York City.


[edit] Geography
The community borders the Great South Bay.

Sayville is located at 40°44′47″N, 73°4′52″W (40.746282, -73.081112)[1].

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 5.6 mi² (14.5 km²). 5.5 mi² (14.3 km²) of it is land and 0.1 mi² (0.2 km²) of it (1.07%) is water.


[edit] Demographics
As of the census[2] of 2000, there were 16,735 people, 5,603 households, and 4,353 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 3,028.4/mi² (1,168.4/km²). There were 5,721 housing units at an average density of 1,035.3/mi² (399.4/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 95.81% White, 0.72% African American, 0.04% Native American, 2.03% Asian, 0.48% from other races, and 0.92% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.02% of the population.

There were 5,603 households out of which 40.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.2% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.3% were non-families. 17.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 3.34.

In the CDP the population was spread out with 27.2% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 11.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 92.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.9 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $75,236, and the median income for a family was $85,229. Males had a median income of $57,055 versus $35,091 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $28,723. About 2.5% of families and 4.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.6% of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 or over.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Oakdale is a scion of America's gilded age of a century ago, where powerful men of incredible wealth built South Shore gold coast mansions and dwelt in manorial splendor.

It may seem peculiar, but it all began because a good old boy of the time named Eliphalet (Liff) Snedecor ran a terrific tavern in the woods, in what is now Connetquot River State Park. Soon after its founding in 1820, Snedecor's Tavern began drawing New York bluebloods and business barons who wined and dined in remote joy when they weren't fishing and hunting nearby. ``Liff's food is as good as his creek, a magazine writer declared in 1839, referring to the Connetquot River, ``and the two are only second to his mint juleps and champagne punch; whoever gainsays ther fact deserves hanging without benefit of clergy. In 1866, as the railroad reached the area, Liff's wealthy patrons formed the Southside Sportsmen's Club, and soon the race was on to see who could create the most superb spread in the thick forests adjoining Great South Bay.

The most prominent were William K. Vanderbilt, grandson of railroad magnate Cornelius Vanderbilt; Frederick G. Bourne, president of the Singer Sewing Machine Co., and Christopher Robert II, an eccentric hr to a sugar fortune. Meanwhile, William Bayard Cutting, a lawyer, financier and railroad man, built his estate next door in Great River, which had once been west Oakdale.

Oakdale was part of the royal land grant given to William Nicoll, who founded Town in 1697. Local historian Charles P. Dickerson, writing in 1975, said Oakdale's name apparently came from a Nicoll descendant in the mid-1800s. The community has other claims to historical distinction: St. John's Episcopal Church, built in 1765, is the third oldest church on Long Island. In 1912, Jacob Ockers of Oakdale organized the Bluepoint Oyster Co., which became the largest oyster producer and shipper in the country.

But the mansions dominated Oakdale's past. In 1882, Vanderbilt built the most noted one, Idle Hour, his 900-acre (3.6 km²) estate on the Connetquot River. The lavish, wooden 110-room home was destroyed by fire April 15, 1899, while his son, Willie K. II, was honeymooning there. Willie and his new wife escaped. It was promptly rebuilt of red brick and gray stone, with exquisite furnishings, for a princely $3 million. The building at the time was considered among the finest homes in America. Probably the social event there was the 1895 wedding reception of Vanderbilt's daughter, Consuela, to the duke of Marlborough. After Vanderbilt's death in 1920, the mansion went through several phases and visitors, including a brief stay during Prohibition by gangster Dutch Schultz. Around that time, cow stalls, pig pens and corn cribs on the farm portion of Idle Hour were converted into a short-lived bohemian artists' colony that included figures such as George Elmer Browne and Roman Bonet-Sintas. Now the estate is the home of Dowling College, a fast-growing commuter school.

By 1888, Robert built a spectacular castle just of Idle Hour called Pepperidge Hall, magnificently furnished in the French style for his young wife. But the pair didn't get along. On January 2, 1898, she told police she found Robert shot to death in his Manhattan apartment. It was ruled suicide and she moved to Paris. The mansion fell into disrepair and was razed in 1940.

In 1897, Bourne, who began with 438 acres (1.77 km²) but later owned several thousand acres reaching to West Sayville, completed his mansion, Indian Neck Hall, on the side of Oakdale. Bourne was active locally, as commodore of the Sayville Yacht Club, and was generous to the local fire department. The ern part of his estate is now comprised of the West Sayville County Golf Course and the Suffolk County Marine Museum, while much of the middle portion is covered with homes. Bourne died in 1920. Six years later the mansion, on the western end, became the site of LaSalle Military Academy, operated by the Christian Brothers, a Catholic order. In 1993, the brothers converted the academy into a kindergarten-through-high school ``global learning community.In 2001, LaSalle was closed and it was bought by St. John's University, New York.

Between St. John's University and the West Sayville Country Club is an approximately 250-cottage private summer colony called West Oak Recreation Club (or W.O.R.C.). Although people believe it to be a summer camp or religious community, it is a 75-year-old exclusive, members-only colony. It should be noted that the word LILCO was scratched into the W.O.R.C. pay phone located adjacent to the "big house" in the days before the utility changed its name to LIPA, but after the period when people had to "do thr business", ther sitting or standing, at the communal toilets located at what was known as the big house. This also predates cell phones, naturally.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Bayport is located at 40°44′52″N, 73°3′15″W (40.747858, -73.054216)[1].

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 3.8 square miles (9.8 km²), of which, 3.7 square miles (9.6 km²) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.2 km²) of it (2.37%) is water.

Fire protection in Bayport is provided by the Bayport Volunteer Fire Department (see link below) located at 251 Snedecor Avenue. Besides fire protection, the Bayport Fire Department also responds on heavy rescue calls, water related emergencies, hazardous materials incidents and a first response for high priority EMS calls such as cardiac arrest, choking, etc. EMS/Ambulance Service is provided by the Community Volunteer Ambulance Co. located in Sayville (Community Ambulance also covers besides Bayport & Sayville, West Sayville, Bohemia & Oakdale)


[edit] Demographics
As of the census[2] of 2000, there were 8,662 people, 3,222 households, and 2,303 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 2,332.8 per square mile (901.5/km²). There were 3,325 housing units at an average density of 895.5/sq mi (346.0/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 96.06% White, 0.89% African American, 0.07% Native American, 1.18% Asian, 0.82% from other races, and 0.98% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.93% of the population.

There were 3,222 households out of which 33.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.0% were married couples living together, 8.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.5% were non-families. 23.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.20.

In the CDP the population was spread out with 25.6% under the age of 18, 5.3% from 18 to 24, 31.1% from 25 to 44, 25.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.0 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $74,861, and the median income for a family was $88,701. Males had a median income of $61,421 versus $40,247 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $31,638. About 2.6% of families and 3.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.4% of those under age 18 and 7.2% of those age 65 or over.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

is a hamlet (and census-designated place) in Suffolk County, New York, United States. The population was 9,871 at the 2000 census.

Bohemia is in the Town of .

The main school district in the town is the Connetquot School District

The zip code is 11716 and the telephone area code is 631.

Contents [hide]
1 Geography
2 Demographics
3 History
4 References
5 External links



[edit] Geography
Bohemia is located in New York at 40°46′12″N, 73°6′50″W (40.770042, -73.113760)[1].

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 8.8 square miles (22.7 km²), of which, 8.7 square miles (22.6 km²) of it is land and 0.04 square miles (0.1 km²) of it (0.34%) is water.


[edit] Demographics
As of the census[2] of 2000, there were 9,871 people, 3,326 households, and 2,554 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,131.3 per square mile (436.6/km²). There were 3,387 housing units at an average density of 388.2/sq mi (149.8/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 94.61% White, 0.86% African American, 0.05% Native American, 2.38% Asian, 0.83% from other races, and 1.27% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.41% of the population.

There were 3,326 households out of which 34.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.9% were married couples living together, 9.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.2% were non-families. 18.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.86 and the average family size was 3.28.

In the CDP the population was spread out with 23.2% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 31.9% from 25 to 44, 25.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 98.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.7 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $65,308, and the median income for a family was $73,218. Males had a median income of $46,449 versus $34,403 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $25,942. About 3.2% of families and 3.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.8% of those under age 18 and 9.8% of those age 65 or over.

[Unregisteredyah!]

Nothing liberates our greatness like the desire to help, the desire to serve.
- Marianne Williamson, Author/Lecturer

Unselfish and noble actions are the most radiant pages in the biography of souls.
- David Thomas

Volunteering is not a choice, it's a responsibility.
- Ashley E. Hyder

Your talent is God's gift to you. What you do with it is your gift back to God.
- Anonymous

All labor that uplifts humanity has dignity and importance and should be undertaken with painstaking excellence.
- Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

You will come to know that what appears today to be a sacrifice will prove instead to be the greatest investment that you will ever make.
- Gorden B. Hinkley

Service is the rent we pay to be living. It is the very purpose of life and not something you do in your spare time.
–Marian Wright Edelman

…no matter how big government gets, and no matter how many services it provides, it can never take the place of volunteers.
- Ronald Reagan, 40th U.S. president

There is no exercise better for the heart than reaching down and lifting people up.
- John Andrew Holmes Jr., American writer and minister

Sacrifice is giving up something good for something better.
- Anonymous

The broadest, and maybe the most meaningful definition of volunteering: Doing more than you have to because you want to, in a cause you consider good.
- Ivan Scher

Freely we serve,
Because we freely love, as in our will
To love or not; in this we stand or fall.
- John Milton

Volunteers don't get paid, not because they're worthless, but because they're priceless.

[Unregisteredwanna bee]

Care & Use of Your Magnetic Signs
It is important that you read and follow recommendations throughly. Your caution in using your signs is imperative, as AAInstantsign.com will not assume responsibility for signs that fly off of your vehicle for any reason.

Before applying your magnetic signs make sure that your magnetic signs, as well as your vehicle, are clean and dry. You should lay your signs on a warm flat surface (like your dinning table) for a while so that they will lay flat when applied to your vehicle. It is best if your vehicle has not been waxed within the last two months. If your vehicle is new, or has been waxed recently, allow several months for the paint or wax to cure. An important thing to consider when choosing where to place your signs is that magnetic sheeting adheres best to flat surfaces and surfaces with slight curves. As you are putting on your signs, remember that, when you need to realign your sign, you need to remove the sign, and then put it where you want. NEVER PULL YOUR MAGNETIC SIGN TO REALIGN IT. Not only do you hazard scratching the paint, you will also run the risk of stretching the magnetic sign material. Make sure that the whole magnet is flush against the metal surface; there should not be any air pockets. Do not put the signs on any freshly repainted surfaces. AAInstantsign.com is not responsible for any loss or damage that results from the misuse of magnetic material.

Weekly removal and cleaning is recommended, when used in a normal outdoor environment, this will keep moisture and dirt from collecting behind your magnetic signs. Remove and clean your signs as well as the surface you put them on and allow them to thoroughly air dry. This process should be repeated daily when you are using your signs outdoors in dusty conditions. Be absolutely sure that your signs stay clean so they won’t scratch the surface they are on.

Your magnetic signs will be most pliable, which makes them easier to work with, when they are near room temperature when they are applied. The best way to store your magnetic signs is to lay them flat, it is best to not roll them after you recve them. We roll them once for shipping purposes. Never place like sides together (printed side to printed side or backing to backing) this will discharge the magnetic material. Stacking them on top of one another for storage is fine. Avoid placing signs on protruding objects. You should also avoid contacting the lettering on your sign against the other sign or any other objects. The graphic material we used to make your sign is very high quality, but it is not indestructible.

Other companies suggest that you round the corners of your sign as the square corners create more wind resistance and are more easily damaged and dog-eared over time. However, we have already provided this service for you so you do not need to change the corners at all.

Due to the delicate nature of magnetic signs and our lack of control over the environment and individual conditions, we do not address claims made after 30 days. The longevity of your signs directly reflects how well they have been cared for.

[Unregisteredg35rgbh]

hmm, how fast DO you have to drive to have your magnet FLY off the side of your car into the woods and have the west sayville fd find it?

[Unregistered70+MPH]

Jamie is such a freaken dick...

[Unregisteredxoxoxo]

The earliest Native American inhabitants of Sayville were of the Algonquian Nation.

Sayville was founded by Nolanbud (b. 1738, Hampton, New York). He built his home, the first in Sayville, in 1761, located at what is now the northwest corner of Foster Ave. and Edwards St. The house was destroyed by fire in March, 1913. Another man, John Greene, settled what's now known as West Sayville in 1767.

The community had no formal name until 1838 when residents gathered to choose a formal name. Until that time, Sayville was known informally as "over south." The townspeople held a meeting to decide on a name, and after Edwardsville and Greensville tied in a vote, one resident suggested "Seaville." According to historical accounts, the clerk at that particular meeting did not know how to spell and had to go home and look in an old Bible he had brought from England years before. In the Bible, the word "Sea" was spelled "Say," and "Sayville" became the name he sent to Washington. After the error was discovered, the town sent a letter of protest to Washington; however, the Postmaster General responded that the town's name should stay "Sayville," as there were many Seavilles in the world but no Sayvilles. As a result, the name stuck. Incidentally, in some very old Bibles, the town name is also spelled "Saville."

Sayville became important for its timber, oysters, and beginning in 1868 when the South Side Rail Road arrived, the hamlet became a summer tourist destination. Over 30 hotels were built in the area and travelers took advantage of the Sayville based ferry to Fire Island.

Between 1880 and 1930, many grand homes and estates were built in Sayville, including Meadow Croft, the home of John Ellis Roosevelt, a cousin of Theodore Roosevelt. Meadow Croft still stands and is part of Suffolk County's San Souci Lakes Nature Preserve. [1]

In 1912 a German Telefunken wireless transmitter was built in Sayville to broadcast to Germany. In 1915, the transmitter allegedly relayed a message from the German Embassy to "get Lucy" referring to the RMS Lusitania which was sunk on May 15. Whether the signals coming from the transmitter in Sayville authorized the attack or not, they caused concern for the US government which dispatched Marines to ensure encrypted messages were not sent. The station was szed by the government outright after war was declared in 1917. President Woodrow Wilson sent a contingent of Marines to take the wireless station, thus the first hostile action taken by the United States against Germany during World War I was in Sayville.

From 1919 to May 1932 Sayville was home to Father Divine, a controversial African American religious leader who claimed to be God. His religious movement, which came to be called the International Peace Mission movement, managed a commune-like house on 72 Macon Street which was the first black-owned residence in Sayville. At that time Sayville was predominantly a seasonal vacation community, and Father Divine's followers made good livings as native house sitters. Because followers turned over all of thr profits to Father Divine, he was able to build several expansions on the house. He even bought an expensive Cadillac automobile when nghbors complained about his noisy Hudson.

Father Divine's apparent flaunting of wealth annoyed the middle class town. Street-clogging traffic that Father Divine attracted made him unpopular even to businesses he patronized with large cash purchases. Following a June, 1932 trial and prison sentence for disturbing the peace, Father Divine moved to Harlem, New York claiming that Sayville was bigoted. However, the commune remained on Macon Street for many years. Father Divine occasionally preached in Sayville afterward, but the home was only an outpost of his movement, not its center stage.

In 1956 the BBC, sponsored by Voice of America filmed here for two weeks for a program, "Life in Sayville."

Famous residents of Sayville past and present include Melissa Joan Hart, star of Clarissa Explains It All and Sabrina, the Teenage Witch; Mark Lotito, Broadway star most recently appearing in Jersey Boys; author Robert Roosevelt; Tom Westman, a New York City fireman who won $1,000,000 on the reality show Survivor in 2005; Bobby Tims, voted best person ever in the April 2005 edition of Time Magazine; and Marlon Brando, who was discovered for his first Broadway role shortly after having the starring role in a summer playhouse production. According to Cynthia Blair of Newsday, Brando was expelled from an acting company, of the New School, in Sayville.[2]

Sayville is the embarkation point for ferries to the Fire Island communities of Cherry Grove, Fire Island Pines and Sailors Haven, popular vacation communities for New Yorkers and Long Islanders. The Sayville station of the Long Island Rail Road connects with the ferries via taxi and van services, and also serves commuters to New York City.


[edit] Geography
The community borders the Great South Bay.

Sayville is located at 40°44′47″N, 73°4′52″W (40.746282, -73.081112)[1].

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 5.6 mi² (14.5 km²). 5.5 mi² (14.3 km²) of it is land and 0.1 mi² (0.2 km²) of it (1.07%) is water.


[edit] Demographics
As of the census[2] of 2000, there were 16,735 people, 5,603 households, and 4,353 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 3,028.4/mi² (1,168.4/km²). There were 5,721 housing units at an average density of 1,035.3/mi² (399.4/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 95.81% White, 0.72% African American, 0.04% Native American, 2.03% Asian, 0.48% from other races, and 0.92% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.02% of the population.

There were 5,603 households out of which 40.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.2% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.3% were non-families. 17.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 3.34.

In the CDP the population was spread out with 27.2% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 11.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 92.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.9 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $75,236, and the median income for a family was $85,229. Males had a median income of $57,055 versus $35,091 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $28,723. About 2.5% of families and 4.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.6% of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 or over.

[Unregisteredxoxoxo]

Jealousy is a familiar experience in human relationships. It has been reported in every culture and in many forms where researchers have looked. [3] [4] [5] It has been observed in infants as young as 5-6 months old and in adults over 65 years old. [6] [7] [8] [9]

Jealousy has been an enduring topic of interest for scientists, artists, and theologians. Psychologists have proposed several models of the processes underlying jealousy and have identified individual differences that influence the expression of jealousy. Sociologists have demonstrated that cultural beliefs and values play an important role in determining what triggers jealousy and what constitutes socially acceptable expressions of jealousy. Biologists have identified factors that may unconsciously influence the expression of jealousy. Artists have explored the theme of jealousy in photographs, paintings, movies, songs, plays, poems, and books. Theologians have offered religious views of jealousy based on the scriptures of thr respective faiths.


[edit] Origins
Jealousy involves an entire “emotional episode,” including a complex “narrative,”: the circumstances that lead up to jealousy, jealousy itself as emotion, any attempt at self regulation, subsequent actions and events and the resolution of the episode (Parrott, 2001, p. 306). The narrative can originate from experienced facts, thoughts, perceptions, memories, but also imagination, guess and assumptions. The more society and culture matter in the formation of these factors, the more jealousy can have a social and cultural origin. By contrast, Goldie (2000, p. 228) shows how jealousy can be a “cognitively impenetrable state”, where education and rational belief matter very little.

One explanation of the origin of jealousy in evolutionary psychology is that the emotion evolved in order to maximize the success of our genes: it is a biologically based emotion (Prinz after Buss and Larsen, 2004, p. 120) selected to foster the certainty about the paternity of one’s own offspring. A jealous behavior, in men, is directed into avoiding sexual betrayal and a consequent waste of resources and effort in taking care of someone else’s offspring. There are, additionally, cultural or social explanations of the origin of jealousy. According to one, the narrative from which jealousy arises can be in great part made by the imagination. Imagination is strongly affected by the culture a person is inserted in. The pattern of reasoning, the way one percves situations, depends strongly on cultural context.


[edit] Psychology of jealousy
While mainstream psychology considers sexual arousal through jealousy a paraphilia, some authors on sexuality (Serge Kreutz, Instrumental Jealousy) have argued that jealousy in manageable dimensions can have a definite positive effect on sexual function and sexual satisfaction. Studies have also shown that jealousy sometimes hghtens passion towards partners and increases the intensity of passionate sex. [10] [11]


[edit] Sociology of jealousy
Main article: Jealousy sociology
Anthropologists have claimed that jealousy varies across cultures. Cultural learning can influence the situations that trigger jealousy and the manner in which jealousy is expressed. Attitudes toward jealousy can also change within a culture over time. For example, attitudes toward jealousy changed substantially during the 1960s and 1970s in the United States. People in the United States adopted much more negative views about jealousy.


[edit] Jealousy in art

Love letter from a rival; youth catches his boyfriend with a love letter from another. Panel from a series of ten homoerotic scenes on a shunga-style painted hand scroll (kakemono-e); sumi, color and gofun on silk. Miyagawa Isshô, ca. 1750Main article: Jealousy in art
Jealousy is the powerful complex of emotions experienced at the loss, real or imagined, of something or someone you believe is yours, whereas envy concerns what you don’t have and would like to possess. Othello is filled with jealousy at the thought of losing Desdemona: Iago is consumed with envy of Othello’s prestige. Because jealous lovers tell multiple stories about those who arouse thr jealousy, and because the emotion is so corrosive, jealousy is a common theme in literature, art, theatre, and film.

[Unregisteredxoxox]

study of psychology in a philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China and India. Psychology began adopting a more clinical[1] and experimental[2] approach under medieval Muslim psychologists and physicians, who built psychiatric hospitals for such purposes.[3]

Though the use of psychological experimentation dates back to Alhazen's Book of Optics in 1021,[2][4] psychology as an independent experimental field of study began in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research at Lpzig University in Germany, for which Wundt is known as the "father of psychology".[5] 1879 is thus sometimes regarded as the "birthdate" of psychology. The American philosopher William James published his seminal book, Principles of Psychology,[6] in 1890, while laying the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would focus on for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), a pioneer in the experimental study of memory at the University of Berlin; and the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), who investigated the learning process now referred to as classical conditioning.


[edit] Psychoanalysis

Auguste Rodin's The Thinker, bronze cast by Alexis Rudier, Laeken Cemetery, Brussels, Belgium.During the 1890s, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed a method of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations, and was focused in particular on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and psychopathology. Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Freud also had a significant influence on Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology. Philosopher Karl Popper argued that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in untestable form.[7] Due to thr subjective nature, Freud's theories are often of limited interest to many scientifically-oriented psychology departments. Followers of Freud who accept the basic ideas of psychoanalysis but alter it in some way are called neo-Freudians. Modification of Jung's theories has led to the archetypal and process-oriented schools of psychological thought.


[edit] Behaviorism
Partly in opposition to the subjective and introspective nature of Freudian psychodynamics, and its focus on the recollection of childhood experiences, during the early decades of the 20th century, behaviorism gained popularity as a guiding psychological theory. Founded by John B. Watson and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F. Skinner, behaviorism was grounded in animal experimentation in the laboratory. Behaviorists shared the view that the subject matter of psychology should be operationalized with standardized procedures which led psychology to focus on behavior, not the mind or consciousness.[8] They doubted the validity of introspection for studying internal mental states such as feelings, sensations, beliefs, desires, and other unobservable entities.[8] In "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913),[9] Watson argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science," that "introspection forms no essential part of its methods," and that "the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute." Skinner rejected hypothesis testing as a research method, considering it to be too conducive to speculative theories that would promote useless research and stifle good research.[10]

Behaviorism was the dominant paradigm in American psychology throughout the first half of the 20th century. However, the modern field of psychology is largely dominated by cognitive psychology. Linguist Noam Chomsky helped spark the cognitive revolution in psychology through his review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, in which he challenged the behaviorist approach to the study of behavior and language dominant in the 1950s. Chomsky was highly critical of what he considered arbitrary notions of 'stimulus', 'response' and 'rnforcement' which Skinner borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory. Chomsky argued that Skinner's notions could only be applied to complex human behavior, such as language acquisition, in a vague and superficial manner. Chomsky emphasized that research and analysis must not ignore the contribution of the child in the acquisition of language and proposed that humans are born with an natural ability to acquire language.[11] Work most associated with psychologist Albert Bandura, who initiated and studied social learning theory, showed that children could learn aggression from a role model through observational learning, without any change in overt behavior, and so must be accounted for by internal processes.[12]


[edit] Existentialism and humanism
Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, arising largely from the existential philosophy of writers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Søren Kierkegaard. By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to glimpse the whole person--not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.[13] Humanism focuses on uniquely human issues and fundamental issues of life, such as self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were Abraham Maslow who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, Carl Rogers who created and developed Client-centered therapy, and Fritz Perls who helped create and develop Gestalt therapy. It became so influential as to be called the "third force" within psychology (along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis).[14]


[edit] Cognitivism
As computer technology proliferated, so emerged the metaphor of mental function as information processing. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of cognitivism as a popular model of the mind. Cognitive psychology differs from other psychological perspectives in two key ways. First, it accepts the use of the scientific method, and generally rejects introspection as a method of investigation, unlike symbol-driven approaches such as Freudian psychodynamics. Second, it explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as belief, desire and motivation), whereas behaviorism does not.

Links between brain and nervous system function also became understood, partly due to the experimental work of people such as Charles Sherrington and Donald Hebb, and partly due to studies of people with brain injury (see cognitive neuropsychology). With the development of technologies for measuring brain function, neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience have become increasingly active areas of contemporary psychology. Cognitive psychology has been subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the umbrella discipline of cognitive science.


[edit] Principles

[edit] Mind and brain
Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behavior, and social interaction. Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behavior as it actually occurs. Since the 1980s, psychology has begun to examine the relationship between consciousness and the brain or nervous system. It is still not clear how these interact: does consciousness determine brain states or do brain states determine consciousness--or are both going on in various ways? Or, is consciousness some sort of complicated 'illusion' that bears no direct relationship to neural processes? Perhaps to understand this, it is necessary to define "consciousness" and "brain state". An understanding of brain function is increasingly bng included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.


[edit] Schools of thought
Main article: List of psychological schools
Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some psychologists may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories. On the basis of Tinbergen's four questions a framework of reference of all fields of psychological research can be established (including anthropological research and humanities).

[Unregisteredxoxoxo]

There is no universally agreed biological definition of dreaming. General observation shows that dreams are strongly associated with rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, during which an electroencephalogram shows brain activity to be most like wakefulness. Participant-nonremembered dreams during non-REM sleep are normally more mundane in comparison.[1] During a typical lifespan, a human spends a total of about six years dreaming[2] (which is about 2 hours each night[3]). It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams or if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind.

During REM sleep, the release of certain neurotransmitters is completely suppressed. As a result, motor neurons are not stimulated, a condition known as REM atonia. This prevents dreams from resulting in dangerous movements of the body.


[edit] Discovery of REM
In 1953 Eugene Aserinsky discovered REM sleep while working in the surgery of his PhD advisor. Aserinsky noticed that the sleepers' eyes fluttered beneath thr closed eyelids, later using a polygraph machine to record thr brain waves during these periods. In one session he awakened a subject who was wailing and crying out during REM and confirmed his suspicion that dreaming was occurring.[4] In 1953 Aserinsky and his advisor published the ground-breaking study in Science.[5]


[edit] Dream theories

[edit] Activation-synthesis
In 1976, J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley proposed a new theory that changed dream research, challenging the previously held Freudian view of dreams as unconscious wishes to be interpreted. The activation synthesis theory asserts that the sensory experiences are fabricated by the cortex as a means of interpreting chaotic signals from the pons. They propose that in REM sleep, the ascending cholinergic PGO (ponto-geniculo-occipital) waves stimulate higher midbrain and forebrain cortical structures, producing rapid eye movements. The activated forebrain then synthesizes the dream out of this internally generated information. They assume that the same structures that induce REM sleep also generate sensory information.

Hobson and McCarly's 1976 research suggested that the signals interpreted as dreams originated in the brain stem during REM sleep. However, research by Mark Solms suggests that dreams are generated in the forebrain, and that REM sleep and dreaming are not directly related.[6] While working in the neurosurgery department at hospitals in Johannesburg and London, Solms had access to patients with various brain injuries. He began to question patients about thr dreams and confirmed that patients with damage to the parietal lobe stopped dreaming; this finding was in line with Hobson's 1977 theory. However, Solms did not encounter cases of loss of dreaming with patients having brain stem damage. This observation forced him to question Hobson's prevailing theory which marked the brain stem as the source of the signals interpreted as dreams. Solms viewed the idea of dreaming as a function of many complex brain structures as validating Freudian dream theory, an idea that drew criticism from Hobson.[7] Unhappy about Holmes' attempts at discrediting him, Solms, along with partner Edward Nadar, undertook a series of traumatic-injury impact studies using several different species of primates, particularly howler monkeys, in order to more fully understand the role brain damage plays in dream pathology. Solms' experiments proved inconclusive, however, as the high mortality rate associated with using an hydraulic impact pin to artificially produce brain damage in test subjects meant that his final candidate pool was too small to satisfy the requirements of the scientific method.


[edit] Continual-activation
Combining Hobson's activation synthesis hypothesis with Solms's findings, the continual-activation theory of dreaming presented by Jie Zhang proposes that dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis; at the same time, dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mechanisms. Zhang hypothesizes that the function of sleep is to process, encode, and transfer the data from the temporary memory to the long-term memory, though there is not much evidence backing up this so-called "consolidation." Non-REM sleep processes the conscious-related memory (declarative memory), and REM sleep processes the unconscious related memory (procedural memory).

Zhang assumes that during REM sleep, the unconscious part of a brain is busy processing the procedural memory; meanwhile, the level of activation in the conscious part of the brain will descend to a very low level as the inputs from the sensory are basically disconnected. This will trigger the "continual-activation" mechanism to generate a data stream from the memory stores to flow through the conscious part of the brain. Zhang suggests that this pulse-like brain activation is the inducer of each dream. He proposes that, with the involvement of the brain associative thinking system, dreaming is, thereafter, self-maintained with the dreamer's own thinking until the next pulse of memory insertion. This explains why dreams have both characteristics of continuity (within a dream) and sudden changes (between two or more dreams).[8][9]


[edit] Dreams and memory
Eugen Tarnow suggests that dreams are ever-present excitations of long-term memory, even during waking life. The strangeness of dreams is due to the format of long-term memory, reminiscent of Penfield & Rasmussen’s findings that electrical excitations of the cortex give rise to experiences similar to dreams. During waking life an executive function interprets long term memory consistent with reality checking. Tarnow's theory is a reworking of Freud's theory of dreams in which Freud's unconscious is replaced with the long-term memory system and Freud's “Dream Work” describes the structure of long-term memory.[10]


Location of hippocampus
[edit] Hippocampus and memory
A 2001 study showed evidence that illogical locations, characters, and dream flow may help the brain strengthen the linking and consolidation of semantic memories. These conditions may occur because, during REM sleep, the flow of information between the hippocampus and neocortex is reduced.[11] Increasing levels of the stress hormone cortisol late in sleep (often during REM sleep) cause this decreased communication. One stage of memory consolidation is the linking of distant but related memories. Payne and Nadel hypothesize that these memories are then consolidated into a smooth narrative, similar to a process that happens when memories are created under stress.[12]


[edit] Functional hypotheses
There are many hypotheses about the function of dreams, including:[13]

During the night there may be many external stimuli bombarding the senses, but the mind interprets the stimulus and makes it a part of a dream in order to ensure continued sleep.[14] The mind will, however, awaken an individual if they are in danger or if trained to respond to certain sounds, such as a baby crying.
Dreams allow the repressed parts of the mind to be satisfied through fantasy while keeping the conscious mind from thoughts that would suddenly cause one to awaken from shock.[15]
Freud suggested that bad dreams let the brain learn to gain control over emotions resulting from distressing experiences.[13]
Jung suggested that dreams may compensate for one-sided attitudes held in waking consciousness.[16]
Ferenczi[17] proposed that the dream, when told, may communicate something that is not bng said outright.
Dreams are like the cleaning-up operations of computers when they are off-line, removing parasitic nodes and other "junk" from the mind during sleep.[18][19]
Dreams create new ideas through the generation of random thought mutations. Some of these may be rejected by the mind as useless, while others may be seen as valuable and retained. Blechner[20] calls this the theory of "Onric Darwinism."
Dreams regulate mood.[21]
Hartmann[22] says dreams may function like psychotherapy, by "making connections in a safe place" and allowing the dreamer to integrate thoughts that may be dissociated during waking life.
More recent research by Griffin has led to the formulation of the 'expectation fulfillment theory of dreaming', which suggests that dreaming metaphorically completes patterns of emotional expectation and lowers stress levels.[23][24]
Coutts[25] hypothesizes that dreams modify and test mental schemas during sleep during a process he calls emotional selection, and that only schema modifications that appear emotionally adaptive during dream tests are selected for retention, while those that appear maladaptive are abandoned or further modified and tested.
Dream is a product of "dissociated imagination", which is dissociated from conscious self and draws material from sensory memory for simulation, with sensory feedback resulting in hallucination. By simulating the sensory signals to drive the autonomous nerves, dream can effect mind-body interaction. In the brain and spine, the autonomous "repair nerves", which can expand the blood vessels, connect with pain and compression nerves, and are grouped into many chains called meridians by the Chinese. Dream also exploits the chain-reacting meridians to repair body by sending out very intensive movement-compression signals when the level of growth enzyme goes high. [26]

[

[Unregisteredxoxoxo]

Any intelligent fool can make things bigger, more complex, and more violent. It takes a touch of genius -- and a lot of courage -- to move in the opposite direction."
"Imagination is more important than knowledge."
"Gravitation is not responsible for people falling in love."
"I want to know God's thoughts; the rest are details."
"The hardest thing in the world to understand is the income tax."
"Reality is merely an illusion, albt a very persistent one."
"The only real valuable thing is intuition."
"A person starts to live when he can live outside himself."
"I am convinced that He (God) does not play dice."
"God is subtle but he is not malicious."
"Weakness of attitude becomes weakness of character."
"I never think of the future. It comes soon enough."
"The eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility."
"Sometimes one pays most for the things one gets for nothing."
"Science without religion is lame. Religion without science is blind."
"Anyone who has never made a mistake has never tried anything new."
"Great spirits have often encountered violent opposition from weak minds."
"Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler."
"Common sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age ghteen."
"Science is a wonderful thing if one does not have to earn one's living at it."
"The secret to creativity is knowing how to hide your sources."
"The only thing that interferes with my learning is my education."
"God does not care about our mathematical difficulties. He integrates empirically."
"The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking."
"Technological progress is like an axe in the hands of a pathological criminal."
"Peace cannot be kept by force. It can only be achieved by understanding."
"The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it is comprehensible."
"We can't solve problems by using the same kind of thinking we used when we created them."
"Education is what remains after one has forgotten everything he learned in school."
"The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing."
"Do not worry about your difficulties in Mathematics. I can assure you mine are still greater."
"Equations are more important to me, because politics is for the present, but an equation is something for eternity."
"If A is a success in life, then A equals x plus y plus z. Work is x; y is play; and z is keeping your mouth shut."
"Two things are infinite: the universe and human stupidity; and I'm not sure about the the universe."
"As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality."
"Whoever undertakes to set himself up as a judge of Truth and Knowledge is shipwrecked by the laughter of the gods."
"I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones."
"In order to form an immaculate member of a flock of sheep one must, above all, be a sheep."
"The fear of death is the most unjustified of all fears, for there's no risk of accident for someone who's dead."
"Too many of us look upon Americans as dollar chasers. This is a cruel libel, even if it is rterated thoughtlessly by the Americans themselves."
"Heroism on command, senseless violence, and all the loathsome nonsense that goes by the name of patriotism -- how passionately I hate them!"
"No, this trick won't work...How on earth are you ever going to explain in terms of chemistry and physics so important a biological phenomenon as first love?"
"My religion consists of a humble admiration of the illimitable superior spirit who reveals himself in the slight details we are able to percve with our frail and feeble mind."
"Yes, we have to divide up our time like that, between our politics and our equations. But to me our equations are far more important, for politics are only a matter of present concern. A mathematical equation stands forever."
"The release of atom power has changed everything except our way of thinking...the solution to this problem lies in the heart of mankind. If only I had known, I should have become a watchmaker."
"Great spirits have always found violent opposition from mediocrities. The latter cannot understand it when a man does not thoughtlessly submit to hereditary prejudices but honestly and courageously uses his intelligence."
"The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and all science. He to whom this emotion is a stranger, who can no longer pause to wonder and stand rapt in awe, is as good as dead: his eyes are closed."
"A man's ethical behavior should be based effectually on sympathy, education, and social ties; no religious basis is necessary. Man would indeeded be in a poor way if he had to be restrained by fear of punishment and hope of reward after death."
"The further the spiritual evolution of mankind advances, the more certain it seems to me that the path to genuine religiosity does not lie through the fear of life, and the fear of death, and blind faith, but through striving after rational knowledge."
"Now he has departed from this strange world a little ahead of me. That means nothing. People like us, who believe in physics, know that the distinction between past, present, and future is only a stubbornly persistent illusion."
"You see, wire telegraph is a kind of a very, very long cat. You pull his tail in New York and his head is meowing in Los Angeles. Do you understand this? And radio operates exactly the same way: you send signals here, they recve them there. The only difference is that there is no cat."
"One had to cram all this stuff into one's mind for the examinations, whether one liked it or not. This coercion had such a deterring effect on me that, after I had passed the final examination, I found the consideration of any scientific problems distasteful to me for an entire year."
"...one of the strongest motives that lead men to art and science is escape from everyday life with its painful crudity and hopeless dreariness, from the fetters of one's own ever-shifting desires. A finely tempered nature longs to escape from the personal life into the world of objective perception and thought."
"He who joyfully marches to music rank and file, has already earned my contempt. He has been given a large brain by mistake, since for him the spinal cord would surely suffice. This disgrace to civilization should be done away with at once. Heroism at command, how violently I hate all this, how despicable and ignoble war is; I would rather be torn to shreds than be a part of so base an action. It is my conviction that killing under the cloak of war is nothing but an act of murder."
"A human bng is a part of a whole, called by us _universe_, a part limited in time and space. He experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings as something separated from the rest... a kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty."
"Not everything that counts can be counted, and not everything that can be counted counts." (Sign hanging in nstn's office at Princeton)

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Constipation, costiveness, or irregularity, is a condition of the digestive system in which a person (or animal) experiences hard feces that are difficult to expel. This usually happens because the colon absorbs too much water from the food. If the food moves through the gastro-intestinal tract too slowly, the colon may absorb too much water, resulting in feces that are dry and hard. Defecation may be extremely painful, and in severe cases (fecal impaction) lead to symptoms of bowel obstruction. The term obstipation is used for severe constipation that prevents passage of both stools and gas. Causes of constipation may be dietary, hormonal, anatomical, a side effect of medications (e.g. some painkillers), or an illness or disorder. Treatments consist of changes in dietary and exercise habits, the use of laxatives, and other medical interventions depending on the underlying cause.


Types 1 and 2 on the Bristol Stool Chart indicate constipationIn common constipation, the stool is hard, difficult, and painful to pass. Usually, there is an infrequent urge to void. Straining to pass stool may cause hemorrhoids and anal fissures, which are painful in themselves. In later stages of constipation, the abdomen may become distended and diffusely tender and crampy, occasionally with enhanced bowel sounds.

The definition of constipation includes the following:[1]

infrequent bowel movements (typically three times or fewer per week)
difficulty during defecation (straining during more than 25% of bowel movements or a subjective sensation of hard stools), or
the sensation of incomplete bowel evacuation.
Severe cases ("fecal impaction") may feature symptoms of bowel obstruction (vomiting, very tender abdomen) and "paradoxical diarrhea", where soft stool from the small intestine bypasses the impacted matter in the colon.


[edit] Diagnosis
The diagnosis is essentially made from the patient's description of the symptoms. Bowel movements that are difficult to pass, very firm, or made up of small rabbit-like pellets qualify as constipation, even if they occur every day. Other symptoms related to constipation can include bloating, distention, abdominal pain, or a sense of incomplete emptying.[2]

Inquiring about dietary habits may reveal a low intake of dietary fiber or inadequate amounts of fluids. Constipation as a result of poor ambulation or immobility should be considered in the elderly. Constipation may arise as a side effect of medications (especially antidepressants and opiates).[citation needed] Rarely, other symptoms suggestive of hypothyroidism may be elicited.[citation needed]

During physical examination, scybala (manually palpable lumps of stool) may be detected on palpation of the abdomen. Rectal examination gives an impression of the anal sphincter tone and whether the lower rectum contains any feces or not; if so, then suppositories or enemas may be considered. Otherwise, oral medication may be required. Rectal examination also gives information on the consistency of the stool, presence of hemorrhoids, admixture of blood and whether any tumors or abnormalities are present.

X-rays of the abdomen, generally only performed on hospitalized patients or if bowel obstruction is suspected, may reveal impacted fecal matter in the colon, and confirm or rule out other causes of similar symptoms.

Chronic constipation (symptoms present for more than 3 months at l 3 days per month) associated with abdominal discomfort is often diagnosed as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) when no obvious cause is found. Physicians caring for patients with chronic constipation are advised to rule out obvious causes through normal testing.[3]

Colonic propagating pressure wave sequences (PSs) are responsible for discrete movements of content and are vital for normal defaecation. Deficiencies in PS frequency, amplitude and extent of propagation are all implicated in severe defecatory dysfunction. Mechanisms that can normalise these aberrant motor patterns may help rectify the problem. Recently the novel therapy of sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) has been utilized for the treatment of severe constipation. [4]


[edit] Causes
The main causes of constipation include:

Hardening of the feces
Improper mastication (chewing) of food
Insufficient intake of dietary fiber
Dehydration from any cause or inadequate fluid intake
Medication, e.g. diuretics and those containing iron, calcium, aluminum
Paralysis or slowed transit, where peristaltic action is diminished or absent, so that feces are not moved along
Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid gland)
Hypokalemia
Injured anal sphincter (patulous anus)
Medications, such as loperamide, opioids (e.g. codne & morphine) and certain tricyclic antidepressants
Severe illness due to other causes
Acute porphyria (a rare inherited condition)
Lead poisoning
Dyschezia (usually the result of suppressing defecation)
Constriction, where part of the intestine or rectum is narrowed or blocked, not allowing feces to pass
Stenosis (Strictures)
Diverticula
Tumors, ther of the bowel or surrounding tissues
Obstructed defecation, due to:
Mechanical causes from morphological abnormalities of the anorectum including megarectum, rectal prolapse, rectocele, and enterocele
Functional causes from neurological disorders and dysfunction of the pelvic floor muscles or anorectal muscles, including anismus, descending perineum syndrome, and Hirschsprung's disease
Retained forgn body or a bezoar
Psychosomatic constipation, based on anxiety or unfamiliarity with surroundings.
Functional constipation
Constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome, characterized by a combination of constipation and abdominal discomfort and/or pain[5]
Smoking cessation (nicotine has a laxative effect)[6]
Abdominal surgery, other types of surgery, childbirth

[edit] Treatment
In people without medical problems, the main intervention is to increase the intake of fluids (preferably water) and dietary fiber. The latter may be achieved by consuming more vegetables and fruit and whole meal bread, and pulses such as baked beans and chick peas and by adding linseeds to one's diet. The routine non-medical use of laxatives is to be discouraged as this may result in bowel action becoming dependent upon thr use. Enemas can be used to provide a form of mechanical stimulation. However, enemas are generally useful only for stool in the rectum, not in the intestinal tract.

Lactulose, a non absorbable synthetic sugar that keeps sodium and water inside the intestinal lumen, relieves constipation. It can be used for months together. Among the other safe remedies, fiber supplements, lactitiol, sorbitol, milk of magnesia, lubricants etc. may be of value. Electrolyte imbalance e.g. Hyponatremia may occur in some cases especially in diabetics.

In alternative and traditional medicine, colonic irrigation, enemas, exercise, diet and herbs are used to treat constipation. The mechanism of the herbal, enema, and colonic irrigation treatments often include the breakdown of impacted and hardened fecal matter.


[edit] Laxatives
Main article: laxative
Laxatives may be necessary in people in whom dietary intervention is not effective or is inappropriate. Most laxatives can be safely used long-term, although some are associated with cramping and bloatedness and can cause the phenomenon of melanosis coli.


[edit] Physical intervention
Constipation that resists all the above measures requires physical intervention. Manual disimpaction (the physical removal of impacted stool) is done for those patients who have lost control of thr bowels secondary to spinal injuries. Manual disimpaction is also used by physicians and nurses to relieve rectal impactions. Finally, manual disimpaction can occasionally be done under sedation or a general anesthetic—this avoids pain and loosens the anal sphincter.

Many of the products are widely available over-the-counter. Enemas and clysters are a remedy occasionally used for hospitalized patients in whom the constipation has proven to be severe, dangerous in other ways, or resistant to laxatives. Sorbitol, glycerin and arachis oil suppositories can be used. Severe cases may require phosphate solutions introduced as enemas.


[edit] Prevention
Constipation is usually easier to prevent than to treat. The relief of constipation with osmotic agents, i.e. lactulose, polyethylene glycol (PEG), or magnesium salts, should immediately be followed with prevention using increased fiber (fruits, vegetables, and grains) and a nightly decreasing dose of osmotic laxative. With continuing narcotic use, for instance, nightly doses of osmotic agents can be given indefinitely (without harm) to cause a daily bowel movement.

Recent controlled studies have questioned the role of physical exercise in the prevention and management of chronic constipation, while exercise is often recommended by published materials on the subject.[7]


In various conditions (such as the use of codne or morphine), combinations of hydrating (e.g. lactulose or glycols), bulk-forming (e.g. psyllium) and stimulant agents may be necessary to prevent constipation.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Newton's laws of motion describe the acceleration of massive particles. In modern language, the laws may be stated as:

First law
It is possible to select a set of reference frames, called inertial reference frames, observed from which a particle moves without any change in velocity if no net force acts on it. This law is often simplified into the sentence "A particle will stay at rest or continue at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force."
Second law
Observed from an inertial reference frame, the net force on a particle is proportional to the time rate of change of its linear momentum: F = d (mv) / dt.[3][4][5][6][7] Momentum mv is the product of mass and velocity. Force and momentum are vector quantities and the resultant force is found from all the forces present by vector addition. This law is often stated as "F = ma: the net force on an object is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by its acceleration."
Third law
Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another particle B, B simultaneously exerts a force on A with the same magnitude in the opposite direction. The strong form of the law further postulates that these two forces act along the same line. This law is often simplified into the sentence "Every action has an equal and opposite reaction."
In the given interpretation mass, acceleration, and, most importantly, force are assumed to be externally defined quantities. This is the most common, but not the only interpretation: one can consider the laws to be a definition of these quantities. Notice that the second law only holds when the observation is made from an inertial reference frame, and since an inertial reference frame is defined by the first law, asking a proof of the first law from the second law is a logical fallacy. At speeds approaching the speed of light the effects of special relativity must be taken into account.[8]


[edit] Newton's first law: law of inertia
Lex I: Corpus omne perseverare in statu suo quiescendi vel movendi uniformiter in directum, nisi quatenus a viribus impressis cogitur statum illum mutare. Every body perseveres in its state of bng at rest or of moving uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by force impressed. Isaac Newton, The Principia, A new translation by I.B. Cohen and A. Whitman, University of California press, Berkeley 1999This law is also called the law of inertia. This is often paraphrased as "zero net force implies zero acceleration", but this is an over-simplification. As formulated by Newton, the first law is more than a special case of the second law. Newton arranged his laws in hierarchical order for good reason (for example, see Gailili & Tstlin[9], or Woodhouse[10]). The significance of the first law is to establish frames of reference for which the other laws are applicable, such frames bng called inertial frames. To understand why the laws are restricted to inertial frames, consider a ball at rest within an accelerating body: an airplane on a runway will suffice for this example. From the perspective of anyone within the airplane (that is, from the airplane's frame of reference when put in technical terms) the ball will appear to move backwards as the plane accelerates forwards (the same feeling as bng pushed back into your seat as the plane accelerates). This motion appears to contradict Newton's second law as, from the point of view of the passengers, there appears to be no force acting on the ball that would cause it to move. The reason why there is in fact no contradiction to the second law is because Newton's second law (without modification) is not applicable in this situation: Newton's first law does not apply because the stationary ball does not remain stationary. Thus, it is important to establish whether the various laws are applicable or not, inasmuch as they are not applicable in all situations.[11] and Avicenna.[12] The 17th century philosopher René Descartes also formulated the law, although he did not perform any experiments to confirm it. There are no perfect demonstrations of the law, as friction usually causes a force to act on a moving body, and even in outer space gravitational forces act and cannot be shielded against, but the law serves to emphasize the elementary causes of changes in an object's state of motion. Moreover, there are some subtleties related to identifying a condition of zero net force.


[edit] Newton's second law: law of resultant force
Lex II: Mutationem motus proportionalem esse vi motrici impressae, et fieri secundum lineam rectam qua vis illa imprimitur. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction.

In Motte's 1729 translation (from Newton's Latin), the second law of motion reads:[13]

LAW II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed. — If a force generates a motion, a double force will generate double the motion, a triple force triple the motion, whether that force be impressed altogether and at once, or gradually and successively. And this motion (bng always directed the same way with the generating force), if the body moved before, is added to or subtracted from the former motion, according as they directly conspire with or are directly contrary to each other; or obliquely joined, when they are oblique, so as to produce a new motion compounded from the determination of both.

Using modern symbolic notation, Newton's second law can be written as a vector differential equation:


where:

is the force vector
is mass
is the velocity vector
is time.
The product of the mass and velocity is the momentum of the object (which Newton himself called "quantity of motion"). It should be noted that, as is consistent with the law of inertia, the time derivative of the momentum is non-zero when the momentum changes direction, even if there is no change in its magnitude. See time derivative.[14]

If the mass of the object in question is constant this differential equation can be rewritten as:


where:

is the acceleration.
A verbal equivalent of this is "the acceleration of an object is proportional to the force applied, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object". If momentum varies nonlinearly with velocity (as it does for high velocities—see special relativity), then this last version is not accurate.


[edit] Impulse
The term impulse is closely related to the second law, and historically speaking is closer to the original meaning of the law.[15]The meaning of an impulse is as follows:[16][17]

An impulse occurs when a force F acts over an interval of time Δt and is given by .
The words motive force were used by Newton to describe "impulse" and motion to describe momentum; consequently, a historically closer reading of the second law describes the relation between impulse and change of momentum. That is, a mathematical rendering of the original wording resembles a finite difference version of the second law, rather than a differential version.

The analysis of collisions and impacts uses the impulse concept.[18]


[edit] Relativity
Taking special relativity into consideration, the law of resultant force can be put in terms of acceleration as follows:[19]

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Early views on the function of the brain regarded it as little more than cranial stuffing. In Ancient Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, in preparation for mummification, the brain was regularly removed, for it was the heart that was assumed to be the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus, during the first step of mummification, "The most perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs." Over the next five-thousand years, this view came to be reversed; the brain is now known to be seat of intelligence, although idiomatic variations of the former remain, as in "memorizing something by heart".[1]

The first thoughts on the field of psychology came from ancient philosophers, such as Aristotle. As thinkers became more in tune with biomedical research over time, as was the case with medieval psychologists such as Alhazen and Avicenna for example, the concepts of experimental psychology and clinical psychology began emerging. From that point, different branches of psychology emerged with different individuals creating new ideas, with modern psychologists such as Freud and Jung contributing to the field.


[edit] Mind and brain
This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)
Mind and Brain portal
The mind-body problem is one of the central problems in the history of philosophy. The brain is the physical and biological matter contained within the skull, responsible for electrochemical neuronal processes. The mind, in contrast, consists in mental attributes, such as beliefs, desires, perceptions, and so on. There are scientifically demonstrable correlations between mental events and neuronal events; the philosophical question is whether these phenomena are identical, at l partially distinct, or related in some other way.

Philosophical positions on the mind-body problem fall into two main categories. The first category is dualism, according to which the mind exists independently of the brain. Dualist theories are further divided into substance dualism and property dualism. René Descartes is perhaps the most prominent substance dualist, while property dualism is more popular among contemporary dualists like David Chalmers. Dualism requires admitting non-physical substances or properties into ontology, which is in apparent conflict with the scientific world view. The second category is materialism, according to which mental phenomena are identical to neuronal phenomena. A third category of view, idealism, claims that only mental substances and phenomena exist. This view, most prominently held by 18th century Irish philosopher Bishop George Berkeley, has few contemporary adherents.


[edit] Comparative anatomy

A mouse brain.Three groups of animals have notably complex brains: the arthropods (insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and others), the cephalopods (octopuses, squids, and similar mollusks), and the craniates (vertebrates and hagfish).[2] The brain of arthropods and cephalopods arises from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing.[2]

The brain of craniates develops from the anterior section of a single dorsal nerve cord, which later becomes the spinal cord.[3] In craniates, the brain is protected by the bones of the skull.

Mammals have a six-layered neocortex (or homotypic cortex, neopallium), in addition to having some parts of the brain that are allocortex.[3] In mammals, increasing convolutions of the brain are characteristic of animals with more advanced brains. These convolutions provide a larger surface area for a greater number of neurons while keeping the volume of the brain compact enough to fit inside the skull. The folding allows more grey matter to fit into a smaller volume. The folds are called sulci, while the spaces between the folds are called gyri.

In birds, the part of the brain that functionally corresponds to the neocortex is called nidopallium and derives from a different part of the brain. Some birds (like corvids and parrots), are thought by some to have high intelligence, but even in these, the brain region that forms the mammalian neocortex is in fact almost entirely absent. Thus the term Birdbrain.

Although the general histology of the brain is similar from person to person, the structural anatomy can differ. Apart from the gross embryological divisions of the brain, the location of specific gyri and sulci, primary sensory regions, and other structures differs between species.


[edit] Insects
In insects, the brain has four parts, the optic lobes, the protocerebrum, the deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. The optic lobes are behind each eye and process visual stimuli.[2] The protocerebrum contains the mushroom bodies, which respond to smell, and the central body complex. In some species such as bees, the mushroom body recves input from the visual pathway as well. The deutocerebrum includes the antennal lobes, which are similar to the mammalian olfactory bulb, and the mechanosensory neuropils which recve information from touch receptors on the head and antennae. The antennal lobes of flies and moths are quite complex.


[edit] Cephalopods
In cephalopods, the brain has two regions: the supraesophageal mass and the subesophageal mass,[2] separated by the esophagus. The supra- and subesophageal masses are connected to each other on ther side of the esophagus by the basal lobes and the dorsal magnocellular lobes.[2] The large optic lobes are sometimes not considered to be part of the brain, as they are anatomically separate and are joined to the brain by the optic stalks. However, the optic lobes perform much visual processing, and so functionally are part of the brain.


[edit] Mammals and other vertebrates
The telencephalon (cerebrum) is the largest region of the mammalian brain. This is the structure that is most easily visible in brain specimens, and is what most people associate with the "brain". In humans and several other animals, the fissures (sulci) and convolutions (gyri) give the brain a wrinkled appearance. In non-mammalian vertebrates with no cerebrum, the metencephalon is the highest center in the brain. Because humans walk upright, there is a flexure, or bend, in the brain between the brain stem and the cerebrum. Other vertebrates do not have this flexure. Generally, comparing the locations of certain brain structures between humans and other vertebrates often reveals a number of differences.

Behind (or in humans, below) the cerebrum is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is known to be involved in the control of movement,[3] and is connected by thick white matter fibers (cerebellar peduncles) to the pons.[4] The cerebrum has two cerebral hemispheres. The cerebellum also has hemispheres. The telencephalic hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum, another large white matter tract. An outgrowth of the telencephalon called the olfactory bulb is a major structure in many animals, but in humans and other primates it is relatively small.

Vertebrate nervous systems are distinguished by bilaterally symmetrical encephalization. Encephalization refers to the tendency for more complex organisms to gain larger brains through evolutionary time. Larger vertebrates develop a complex, layered and interconnected neuronal circuitry. In modern species most closely related to the first vertebrates, brains are covered with gray matter that has a three-layer structure (allocortex). Thr brains also contain deep brain nucl and fiber tracts forming the white matter. Most regions of the human cerebral cortex have six layers of neurons (neocortex).[4]


[edit] Vertebrate brain regions
(See related article at List of regions in the human brain)


Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain. These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures.According to the hierarchy based on embryonic and evolutionary development, chordate brains are composed of the three regions that later develop into five total divisions:

Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
Myelencephalon
Metencephalon
Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Prosencephalon (forebrain)
Diencephalon
Telencephalon
The brain can also be classified according to function, including divisions such as:

Limbic system
Sensory systems
Visual system
Olfactory system
Gustatory system
Auditory system
Somatosensory system
Motor system
Associative areas
In recent years it was realized that certain birds have developed high intelligence entirely convergently from mammals such as humans. Hence, the functional areas of the avian brain have been redefined by the Avian Brain Nomenclature Consortium. See also Bird intelligence

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Albert nstn (German: IPA: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n] (Audio file) (help·info); English: IPA: /ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn/) (March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He is best known for his theory of relativity and specifically mass–energy equivalence, E = mc 2. nstn recved the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect."[1]

nstn's many contributions to physics include his special theory of relativity, which reconciled mechanics with electromagnetism, and his general theory of relativity, which extended the principle of relativity to non-uniform motion, creating a new theory of gravitation. His other contributions include relativistic cosmology, capillary action, critical opalescence, classical problems of statistical mechanics and thr application to quantum theory, an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules, atomic transition probabilities, the quantum theory of a monatomic gas, thermal properties of light with low radiation density (which laid the foundation for the photon theory), a theory of radiation including stimulated emission, the conception of a unified field theory, and the geometrization of physics.

nstn published over 300 scientific works and over 150 non-scientific works.[2][3] nstn is revered by the physics community,[4] and in 1999 Time magazine named him the "Person of the Century". In wider culture the name "nstn" has become synonymous with genius.



[edit] Youth and schooling
Albert nstn was born into a Jewish family in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany on March 14, 1879. His father was Hermann nstn, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline nstn (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded a company, Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. nstn & Cie, that manufactured electrical equipment.

The nstns were not observant of Jewish religious practices, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school. Although nstn had early speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school.[5][6]


Albert nstn in 1893 (age 14), taken before the family moved to ItalyWhen nstn was five, his father showed him a pocket compass. nstn realized that something in empty space was moving the needle and later stated that this experience made "a deep and lasting impression".[7] At his mother's insistence, he took violin lessons starting at age six, and although he disliked them and eventually quit, he later took great pleasure in Mozart's violin sonatas. As he grew, nstn built models and mechanical devices for fun, and began to show a talent for mathematics.

In 1889, family friend Max Talmud, a medical student,[8] introduced the ten-year-old nstn to key science, mathematics, and philosophy texts, including Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (nstn called it the "holy little geometry book").[8] From Euclid, nstn began to understand deductive reasoning, and by the age of twelve, he had learned Euclidean geometry. Soon thereafter he began to investigate calculus.

In his early teens, nstn attended the progressive Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but nstn clashed with authorities and resented the school regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning.

In 1894, when nstn was fifteen, his father's business failed, and the nstn family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, after a few months, to Pavia. During this time, nstn wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields".[9] nstn had been left behind in Munich to finish high school, but in the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.

Rather than completing high school, nstn decided to apply directly to the ETH Zurich, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, Switzerland. Lacking a school certificate, he was required to take an entrance examination, which he did not pass, although he got exceptional marks in mathematics and physics.[10] nstn wrote that it was in that same year, at age 16, that he first performed his famous thought experiment visualizing traveling alongside a beam of light (nstn 1979).

The nstns sent Albert to Aarau, Switzerland to finish secondary school. While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with the family's daughter, Marie. (Albert's sister Maja later married Paul Winteler.)[11] In Aarau, nstn studied Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. In 1896, he graduated at age 17, renounced his German citizenship to avoid military service (with his father's approval), and finally enrolled in the mathematics program at ETH. Marie moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.

In 1896, nstn's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at ETH, as the only woman studying mathematics. During the next few years, nstn and Marić's friendship developed into romance. nstn graduated in 1900 from ETH with a degree in physics.[12] That same year, nstn's friend Michele Besso introduced him to the work of Ernst Mach. The next year, nstn published a paper in the prestigious Annalen der Physik on the capillary forces of a straw (nstn 1901). On February 21, 1901, he gained Swiss citizenship, which he never revoked.[13]


[edit] Patent office

The 'nstnhaus' on the Kramgasse in Berne where nstn lived with Mileva on the first floor during his Annus MirabilisFollowing graduation, nstn could not find a teaching post. After almost two years of searching, a former classmate's father helped him get a job in Berne, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property,[14] the patent office, as an assistant examiner. His responsibility was evaluating patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, nstn's position at the Swiss Patent Office was made permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[15]

With friends he met in Berne, nstn formed a weekly discussion club on science and philosophy, jokingly named "The Olympia Academy". Thr readings included Poincaré, Mach, and Hume, who influenced nstn's scientific and philosophical outlook.[16]

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Born in New York City, Hilton is the oldest of four children of Richard and Kathy Hilton (née Avanzino). She has a sister, Nicky, and brothers, Barron and Conrad.

On the maternal side of her family, she is a niece of two child stars of the 1970s, Kim Richards and Kyle Richards. Hilton was related by marriage to Nicole Richie's godmother, Nancy Davis, when Nancy's brother, Greg, was married to Kim Richards.

Hilton's paternal grandparents are hotel chairman Barron Hilton, and his wife, the former Marilyn Hawley; Barron Hilton's parents were Hilton Hotels founder Conrad Hilton and his first wife, Mary Barron.

Hilton moved between several exclusive homes in her youth, including a suite in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in Manhattan, Beverly Hills, and the Hamptons. She attended her freshman year of high school at the Marywood-Palm Valley School in Rancho Mirage, California and then the Dwight School in New York for her sophomore and junior years. She was then transferred to the Canterbury School, in New Milford, Connecticut where she was a member of the hockey team. However, in early 1999, she was expelled for violating the school rules.[3] Hilton later earned her GED.[4][5]

In December 2007, Hilton's grandfather Barron Hilton pledged 97 percent of his estate to a charitable organization founded by his father, the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation. An immediate pledge of $1.2 billion was made, with a further $1.1 billion due after his death. He cited his father's actions as the motivation for his pledge. According to reports, the potential inheritance of his grandchildren is sharply diminished.[6][7]


Career
Hilton has worked as a model, actress, musician, and engaged in sometime business pursuits.[8] According to Forbes Magazine, she earned approximately $2 million in 2003–2004,[9] $6.5 million in 2004–2005,[10] and $7 million in 2005–2006.[11]


As a model
Hilton began modeling as a child, initially at charity events.[12] When she was 19, she signed with Donald Trump's modeling agency, T Management.[12] Hilton has also worked with Ford Models in New York, Models 1 Agency in London, Nous Model Management in Los Angeles, and Premier Model Management in London. She has appeared in numerous advertising campaigns, including Iceberg Vodka, GUESS, Tommy Hilfiger, Christian Dior, and Marciano. In 2001, Hilton began to develop a reputation as a socialite, bng identified as "New York's leading It Girl" whose fame was beginning to "extend beyond the New York tabloids".[12] She has appeared in several magazines, including the April 2004 issue of Maxim.[13]


As an actress

Film
Hilton has made cameo appearances in several films, notably Zoolander (2001), Wonderland (2003), and The Cat In The Hat (2003). She landed minor and supporting roles in the feature films Nine Lives (2002), Raising Helen (2004), The Hillz (2004), and House of Wax (2005). Her role as Paige Edwards in House of Wax won the Teen Choice Award for "Best Scream" and earned her a nomination for "Choice Breakout Performance – Female".[14] (It also won her the 2005 Razzie for "Worst Supporting Actress" at the 2005 Golden Raspberry Awards.)[15] She also earned a nomination for "Best Frightened Performance" at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards. She landed her first lead roles in 2006 with the straight-to-DVD releases National Lampoon's Pledge This! and Bottoms Up. She plays the Hottie in a romantic comedy called The Hottie and the Nottie, released in 2008. As of August 2007, Hilton is part of the cast of Repo! the Genetic Opera, which began filming in September 2007.[16] Four of Paris' films are rated in the IMDb bottom 100. These are; The Hillz (rated 23rd worst), Bottom's Up (33rd), Pledge This! (11th) and The Hottie and the Nottie (14th)


Television
Hilton co-starred with Nicole Richie in the Fox reality series The Simple Life, which premiered on December 2, 2003. The Simple Life ran for three seasons on Fox. The show was cancelled by Fox after a dispute between Hilton and Richie, but it was subsequently aired by E! Entertainment Television for the fourth and fifth seasons.[17] Despite talks of a sixth season,[18] the series finished its run at the end of the fifth season.[19] In March 2008, it was reported that Hilton would star in a new MTV reality series tentatively titled "Paris Hilton's My New BFF", about her looking for a new best friend.[20] The series is to run for ten episodes from October to December, 2008.[21]

Hilton has also guest-starred in episodes of The O.C., The George Lopez Show, Las Vegas, American Dreams and Veronica Mars. Furthermore, she appeared in several music videos, including "It Girl" by John Oates and "Just Lose It" by Eminem. Planning is underway for an eponymous cartoon series following the animated life of Hilton, her sister Nicky, and her dog Tinkerbell.[22] , which began filming in September 2007. In April 2008, she guest starred on the My Name is Earl episode I Won't Die with a Little Help from My Friends.[23]


As a recording artist
Further information: Hress Records and Paris (Paris Hilton album)

Paris (2006).Hilton founded Hress Records, a sub-label of Warner Bros. Records, in 2004 and released her self-titled debut album, Paris, under that label on August 22, 2006. Although the album reached number six on the Billboard 200 for a week, its total sales volume has been low.[24][25] Allmusic commented that the album was "more fun than anything released by Britney Spears or Jessica Simpson, and a lot fresher, too." On the whole, critical reception was mixed.[26] On July 16, 2007 Hilton confirmed that she was working on a new album with producer Scott Storch.[27][28][29] In a recent interview with MTV, Hilton decided that her second album is going to be a dance album. She stated that she "loves Bob Sinclair" and wants to create dance-music vibe. Hilton has installed a professional recording studio in her house to work on the album.[30] At a meet and greet in Montreal, Hilton stated that her album is to be released sometime in 2008.[31]


As an author
Further information: Confessions of an Hress: A Tongue-in-Chic Peek Behind the Pose and Your Hress Diary: Confess It All to Me
In the autumn of 2004, Hilton released an autobiographical book, Confessions of an Hress: A Tongue-in-Chic Peek Behind the Pose, co-written by Merle Ginsberg, which includes full color photographs of her and her advice on life as an hress. Hilton reportedly recved a $100,000 advance payment for this book. Some in the media panned the writing as amateurish, and the book was parodied by Robert Mundell on The Late Show with David Letterman. The book became a New York Times bestseller. Hilton followed it up with a designer diary, also with Ginsberg, called Your Hress Diary: Confess It All to Me.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Friendship is a term used to denote co-operative and supportive behavior between two or more bngs. This article focuses on the notion specific to interpersonal relationships. In this sense, the term connotes a relationship which involves mutual knowledge, esteem, and affection along with a degree of rendering service to friends in times of need or crisis. Friends will welcome each other's company and exhibit loyalty towards each other, often to the point of altruism. Thr tastes will usually be similar and may converge, and they will share enjoyable activities. They will also engage in mutually helping behavior, such as exchange of advice and the sharing of hardship. A friend is someone who may often demonstrate reciprocating and reflective behaviors. Yet for many, friendship is nothing more than the trust that someone or something will not harm them. Value that is found in friendships is often the result of a friend demonstrating the following on a consistent basis:

the tendency to desire what is best for the other,
sympathy and empathy,
honesty, perhaps in situations where it may be difficult for others to speak the truth, especially in terms of pointing out the percved faults of one's counterpart
mutual understanding.

Super Friends. Friendships are often the most important relationships in the emotional life of the adolescent, and are often more intense than relationships later in life.In a comparison of personal relationships, friendship is considered to be closer than association, although there is a range of degrees of intimacy in both friendships and associations. Friendship and association can be thought of as spanning across the same continuum. The study of friendship is included in sociology, anthropology, philosophy, and zoology. Various theories of friendship have been proposed, among which are social psychology, social exchange theory, equity theory, relational dialectics, and attachment styles. See Interpersonal relationships

Friendship is considered one of the central human experiences, and has been sanctified by all major religions. The Epic of Gilgamesh, a Babylonian poem that is among the earliest known literary works in history, chronicles in great depth the friendship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu. The Greco-Roman had, as a paramount example, the friendship of Orestes and Pylades. The Abrahamic faiths have the story of David and Jonathan. Friendship played an important role in German Romanticism. A good example for this is Schiller's Die Bürgschaft. The Christian Gospels state that Jesus Christ declared, "No one has greater love than this, to lay down one's life for one's friends."(John 15:13).

In philosophy, Aristotle is known for his discussion (in the Nicomachean Ethics) of philia, which is usually (somewhat misleadingly) translated as "friendship," and certainly includes friendship, though is a much broader concept.

Cultural variations: (stub-section) A group of friends consists of two or more people who are in a mutually pleasing relationship engendering a sentiment of camaraderie, exclusivity, and mutual trust. There are varying degrees of "closeness" between friends. Hence, some people choose to differentiate and categorize friendships based on this sentiment.


[edit] Greece
In Ancient Greece, in Plato's Symposium, a character named Pausanius asserts: "the interests of rulers require that thr subjects should be poor in spirit, and that there should be no strong bond of friendship or society among them, which love, above all other motives, is likely to inspire, as our Athenian tyrants learned by experience; for the love of Aristogton and the constancy of Harmodius had a strength which undid thr power." (Symposium; 182c). The overall tone of The Symposium stresses the importance of asceticism and spiritual love over lust. Critics have long had difficulty interpreting the various opinions outlined in The Symposium, and generally agree that Plato's view is prescriptive rather than descriptive. Nevertheless, the speech of Pausanius provides evidence for pederasty in 5th century Athens.

For Aristotle's position, see Philia.


[edit] Rome
During the time of the Roman Empire, Cicero had his own beliefs on friendship. Cicero believed that in order to have a true friendship with someone there must be all honesty and truth. If there isn’t, then this isn’t a true friendship. In that case, friends must be one hundred percent honest with each other and put one hundred percent of thr trust in the other person. Cicero also believed that for people to be friends with another person, they must do things without the expectation that thr friend will have to repay them. He also believes that if a friend is about to do something wrong, and something that goes against your morals, you shouldn’t compromise your morals. You must explain why what they are going to do is wrong, and help them to see what the right thing to do is, because Cicero believes that ignorance is the cause of evil. Finally the last thing that Cicero believed was that the reason that a friendship comes to an end is because one person in that friendship has become bad. (On Friendship, Cicero)


[edit] Russia
The relationship is constructed differently in different cultures. In Russia, for example, one typically accords very few people the status of "friend". These friendships however make up in intensity what they lack in number. Friends are entitled to call each other by thr first names alone, and to use diminutives. A norm of polite behaviour is addressing "acquaintances" by full first name plus patronymic. These could include relationships which elsewhere would be qualified as real friendships, such as workplace relationships of long standing, nghbors with whom one shares an occasional meal and visit, and so on. Physical contact between friends is expected, and friends, whether or not of the same sex, will embrace, sometimes kiss and walk in public with thr arms around each other, or arm-in-arm, or hand-in-hand.

According to Oleg Kharkhordin in a paper on the politics of friendship, in Soviet society, friendships were "a suspect value for the Stalinist regime" in that they presented a stronger allegiance that could stand in possible opposition to allegiance to the Communist party. "By definition, a friend was an individual who would not let you down even under direct menace to him- or herself; a person to whom one could securely entrust one's controversial thoughts since he or she would never betray them, even under pressure. Friendship thus in a sense became an ultimate value produced in resistance struggles in the Soviet Union". [1]


[edit] Asia
In the Middle and Central Asia male friendships, while less restricted than in Russia, tend also to be reserved and respectable in nature.


[edit] Modern west
In the Western world, intimate physical contact has been sexualized in the public mind over the last one hundred years and is considered almost taboo in friendship, especially between two males. However, stylized hugging or kissing may be considered acceptable, depending on the context (see, for example, the kiss the tramp gives the kid in The Kid). In Spain and other Mediterranean countries men may embrace each other in public and kiss each other on the cheek. This is not limited solely to older generations but rather is present throughout all generations. In young children throughout the modern western world, friendship, usually of a homosocial nature, typically exhibits elements of a closeness and intimacy suppressed later in life in order to conform to societal standards.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

term gentleman (from Latin gentilis, belonging to a race or "gens", and "man", cognate with the French word gentilhomme and the Italian gentil uomo or gentiluomo), in its original and strict signification, denoted a man of good family, analogous to the Latin generosus (its invariable translation in English-Latin documents). In this sense the word equates with the French gentilhomme (nobleman), which latter term was in Great Britain long confined to the peerage. The term "gentry" (from the Old French genterise for gentelise) has much of the social class significance of the French noblesse or of the German Adel, but without the strict technical requirements of those traditions (such as quarters of nobility). This was what the rebels under John Ball in the 14th century meant when they repeated:

When Adam delved and Eve span,
Who was then the Gentleman? [1]
John Selden in Titles of Honour, (1614), discussing the title "gentleman", speaks of "our English use of it" as "convertible with nobilis" (an ambiguous word, like 'noble' meaning elevated ther by rank or by personal qualities) and describes in connection with it the forms of ennobling in various European countries.

To a degree, "gentleman" signified a man with an income derived from property, a legacy or some other source, and was thus independently wealthy and did not need to work. The term was particularly used of those who could not claim nobility or even the rank of esquire. Widening further, it became a politeness for all men, as in the phrase "Ladies and Gentlemen,..." and this was then used (often with the abbreviation Gents) to indicate where men could find a lavatory, without the need to indicate precisely what was bng described.

In modern speech, the term is usually democratised so as to include any man of good, courteous conduct, or even to all men (as in indications of gender-separated facilities).


[edit] Gentleman by conduct
Chaucer in the Meliboeus (circa 1386) says: "Certes he sholde not be called a gentil man, that ... ne dooth his diligence and bisynesse, to kepen his good name"; and in The Wife of Bath's Tale:

Loke who that is most vertuous alway
Prive and apert, and most entendeth ay
To do the gentil dedes that he can
And take him for the gretest gentilman
And in the Romance of the Rose (circa 1400) we find: "he is gentil bycause he doth as longeth to a gentilman".

This use develops through the centuries, until in 1714 we have Steele, in Tatler (No. 207), laying down that "the appellation of Gentleman is never to be affixed to a man's circumstances, but to his Behaviour in them", a limitation over-narrow even for the present day. In this connection, too, one may quote the old story, told by some—very improbably—of James II, of the monarch who replied to a lady petitioning him to make her son a gentleman, "I could make him a nobleman, but God Almighty could not make him a gentleman".

Selden, however, in referring to similar stories "that no Charter can make a Gentleman, which is cited as out of the mouth of some great Princes that have said it", adds that "they without question understood Gentleman for Generosus in the antient sense, or as if it came from Genii/is in that sense, as Gentilis denotes one of a noble Family, or indeed for a Gentleman by birth". For "no creation could make a man of another blood than he is".

The word "gentleman", used in the wide sense with which birth and circumstances have nothing to do, is necessarily incapable of strict definition. For "to behave like a gentleman" may mean little or much, according to the person by whom the phrase is used; "to spend money like a gentleman" may even be no great praise; but "to conduct a business like a gentleman" implies a high standard.


[edit] William Harrison
William Harrison, writing a century earlier, says "gentlemen be those whom thr race and blood, or at the l thr virtues, do make noble and known". A gentleman was in his time usually expected to have a coat of arms, it bng accepted that only a gentleman could have a coat of arms; and Harrison gives the following account of how gentlemen were made in Shakespeare's day:

Gentlemen whose ancestors are not known to come in with William duke of Normandy (for of the Saxon races yet remaining we now make none accompt, much less of the British issue) do take thr beginning in England after this manner in our times. Who soever studieth the laws of the realm, who so abideth in the university, giving his mind to his book, or professeth physic and the liberal sciences, or beside his service in the room of a captain in the wars, or good counsel given at home, whereby his commonwealth is benefited, can live without manual labour, and thereto is able and will bear the port, charge and countenance of a gentleman, he shall for money have a coat and arms bestowed upon him by heralds (who in the charter of the same do of custom pretend antiquity and service, and many gay things) and thereunto bng made so good cheap be called master, which is the title that men give to esquires and gentlemen, and reputed for a gentleman ever after. Which is so much the less to be disallowed of, for that the prince doth lose nothing by it, the gentleman bng so much subject to taxes and public payments as is the yeoman or husbandman, which he likewise doth bear the gladlier for the saving of his reputation. Bng called also to the wars (for with the government of the commonwealth he medleth little) what soever it cost him, he will both array and arm himself accordingly, and show the more manly courage, and all the tokens of the person which he representeth. No man hath hurt by it but himself, who peradventure will go in wider buskins than his legs will bear, or as our proverb saith, now and then bear a bigger sail than his boat is able to sustain.

[edit] Shakespeare
In this way Shakespeare himself was demonstrated, by the grant of his coat of arms, to be no "vagabond" but a gentleman. The inseparability of arms and gentility is shown by two of his characters:

Petruchio: I swear I'll cuff you if you strike again.
Katharine: So may you lose your arms: If you strike me, you are no gentleman;
And if no gentleman, why then no arms.
(The Taming of the Shrew, Act II Scene i.)
However, although only a gentleman could have a coat of arms (so that possession of a coat of arms was proof of gentility), the coat of arms recognised rather than created the status (see G D Squibb The High Court of Chivalry at pp 170-177). Thus, all armigers were gentlemen, but not all gentlemen were armigers. Hence Henry V, act IV, scene iii:

For he today that sheds his blood with me
Shall be my brother: be he ne'er so vile,
This day shall gentle his condition.
And gentlemen in England now abed
Shall think themselves accurs'd they were not here
And hold thr manhoods cheap whilst any speaks
That fought with us upon St. Crispin's Day.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Juliet:
"What's in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet."


Romeo and Juliet (II, ii, 1-2)
Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet meet and fall in love in Shakespeare's lyrical tale of "star-cross'd" lovers. They are doomed from the start as members of two warring families. Here Juliet tells Romeo that a name is an artificial and meaningless convention, and that she loves the person who is called "Montague", not the Montague name and not the Montague family. Romeo, out of his passion for Juliet, rejects his family name and vows, as Juliet asks, to "deny (his) father" and instead be "new baptized" as Juliet's lover. This one short line encapsulates the central struggle and tragedy of the play.

Macbeth:
To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,
To the last syllable of recorded time;
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle!
Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player,
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more. It is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.


Macbeth Act 5, scene 5, 19–28
After hearing that his wife has died, Macbeth takes stock of his own indifference to the event. Death—our return to dust—seems to him merely the last act of a very bad play, an idiot's tale full of bombast and melodrama ("sound and fury"), but without meaning ("signifying nothing"). Murdering King Duncan and szing his throne in retrospect seem like scenes of a script Macbeth was never suited to play. The idea that "all the world's a stage" is occasionally very depressing to Shakespeare's heroes.

"To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow"—along with the other phrases culled from this lode of Bardisms—conveys the mechanical beat of time as it carries this poor player-king from scene to scene. "The last syllable of recorded time"—what Macbeth earlier called "the crack of doom" [see p. 25]—casts time as a sequence of words, as in a script; history becomes a dramatic record. If life is like a bad play, it is thus an illusion, a mere shadow cast by a "brief candle." The candle is perhaps the soul, and the prospects for Macbeth's are grim.

Helena:
"Love looks not with the eyes but with the mind."


A Midsummer Night's Dream (I, i, 234)
In this soliloquy, Helena ponders the transforming power of love, noting that Cupid is blind. The lovesick Helena has been abandoned by her beloved Demetrius, because he loves the more attractive Hermia. Helena, while tall and fair, is not as lovely as Hermia. Helena finds it unfair that Demetrius dotes on Hermia's beauty, and she wishes appearances were contagious the way a sickness is so that she might look just like Hermia and win back Demetrius. The connection of love to eyesight and vision are matters of vital importance in this play about love and the confusion it sometimes brings.

Touchstone:
"We that are true lovers run into strange capers; but as all is mortal in nature, so is all nature in love mortal
in folly."


As You Like It (II, iv, 53-56)
The professional court jester, Touchstone, shifts from acknowledging mortality to accepting the "folly" of love in nature in this scene from the pastoral satire, As You Like It. The lovers in the play, who represent "nature in love," all display a kind of folly. Touchstone has accompanied the Duke's daughter, Celia, into the forest with her friend and cousin, Rosalind, each taking on a series of comedic turns. Shakespeare's use of the traditional figure of the Jester, with his social role and traditional meaning, enabled him to embody a character who could epitomize the comedy's purpose while maintaining objectivity. Touchstone, in effect, presents life as it really is, ridiculing it because it is not ideal, as we wish it to be.

[UnregisteredXOXO]

George Jetson is a fictional character who appears in the animated series The Jetsons. George is the husband of Jane Jetson and the father of teenage daughter Judy and elementary school aged son Elroy. George was also the grandson of Montahue Jetson, who would sometimes visit the family. George lived with his family in the Skypad Apartments in Orbit City, in a future with the traditional trappings of science fantasy depictions of American life in the future: robot servants, flying saucer-like cars, moving sidewalks, etc. Indeed, all the buildings were set on giant poles, and resembled Seattle, Washington's Space Needle; the ground almost never seen.

George was an employee at Spacely's Space Sprockets, a manufacturer of "sprockets" and other high tech equipment. His boss was Cosmo G. Spacely, who was noted for bng both short in hght and in temper, and usually treated his employees (particularly George) in a rather tyrannical fashion. George's job primarily required him to repeatedly push a single button (or on occasion a series of buttons) on a computer (named RUDI in the 1980s series of Jetsons episodes). Once George complained of his heavy work load-having to push a button for one hour for one day of the week! Often, Mr. Spacely would fire George in a fit of anger, only to hire him back by the end of the same episode.

Physically, George is a rather slim man of average hght with short red hair and a cartoonishly large nose. His personality was that of a well-meaning, caring father, but often was befuddled and stressed out by the problems of both his work and family lives. As The Jetsons was partially based on the comic strip Blondie, George himself was probably based on that strip's lead character, Dagwood Bumstead.[citation needed]

George's most famous catchphrase is "Jane! Stop this crazy thing!" seen at the end credits of the 1960s Jetsons episodes, but was also known for frequently uttering the phrase "Hooba-dooba-dooba!" to express wonder or astonishment.

George O'Hanlon was the voice actor who did George's voice in both the sixties and ghties version of the cartoon series. O'Hanlon last did the voice for George Jetson in Jetsons: The Movie, which was released posthumously.

The current voice of George Jetson is Jeff Bergman, who voiced George (and also Mr. Spacely) in some parts of the movie after O'Hanlon's death, and also voiced George for the cameo in the Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law episode "Shaggy Busted" and Spümcø's two Jetsons cartoons: Father & Son Day and The Best Son.

In the Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law episode "Back to the Present," George was voiced by Wally Wingert. In the episode, the Jetsons return to the past to sue the planet for causing global warming.

[UnregisteredXOXO]

To get the most accurate measurements for an individual's penis size, it has been recommended that several measurements be taken at different times, preferably with different erections on different days. Then average these figures together. This is to account for what may be natural variability in size due to factors such as arousal level, time of day, room temperature, frequency of sexual activity, and unreliability of the measurement methods.[2][3]


Length
The length can be measured with the subject standing and the penis held parallel to the floor. The penis is measured along the top, from the base to the tip. Results are inaccurate if the measurement is taken along the underside of the penis, or if the subject is seated or prone.[2]


Circumference
Penis girth is the measurement of the circumference of the completely erect penis. It is variously quoted as an average of three measurements: just below the glans penis, in the middle of the shaft, and at the base.[2]


Problems
A penis must be completely erect in order to obtain an accurate measurement. This may be difficult to achieve in a clinical setting. At l one Brazilian doctor resorted to injecting penises with drugs to induce erection, which gave more consistent results.[4] Some clinicians measure the penis by stretching the flaccid penis as far as comfortably possible.[5] Self-reported measurements tend to be unreliable because men often want to report a larger penis size.[6]


Studies on penis size
While results vary across studies, the consensus is that the average human penis is approximately 12.9–15 cm (5.1–5.9 in) in length with a 95% confidence interval of (10.7 cm, 19.1 cm) (or, equivalently, 4.23 in, 7.53 in).[7][8][9] The typical girth or circumference is approximately 12.3 cm (4.85 in) when fully erect. The average penis size is slightly larger than the median size (or, put another way, most penises are below average in size).


Size at birth

Frequency graph of LifeStyles data
Percentile plot of LifeStyles data
Plot of LifeStyles data of circumference
Percentile plot of LifeStyles data of circumferenceThe average stretched penile length at birth is about 4 cm (1.6 in), and 90% of newborn boys will be between 2.4 and 5.5 cm (0.9 and 2.2 in). Limited growth of the penis occurs between birth and 5 years of age, but very little occurs between 5 years and the onset of puberty. The average size at the beginning of puberty is 6 cm (2.4 in) with adult size reached about 5 years later. W.A. Schonfeld published a penis growth curve in 1943.[10]


Size with aging
Age is not believed to negatively correlate with penis size. “Individual research studies have ... suggested that penis size is smaller in studies focusing on older men, but Wylie and Eardley found no overall differences when they collated the results of various studies [over a 60 year period].”[11]


Erect length
Several scientific studies have been performed on the erect length of the adult penis. Studies which have relied on self-measurement, including those from Internet surveys, consistently reported a higher average length than those which used medical or scientific methods to obtain measurements.[12][9]

The following staff-measured studies are each composed of different subgroups of the human population (i.e. specific age range and/or race; selection of those with sexual medical concerns or self selection) which may meet the definition of possible sample bias.[13][12]

A study published in the September 1996 Journal of Urology concluded that average erect length was 12.9 cm (5.08 in) (measured by staff).[7] The purpose of the study was to “provide guidelines of penile length and circumference to assist in counseling patients considering penile augmentation.” Erection was pharmacologically induced in 80 physically normal American men (varying ethnicity, average age 54). It was concluded: “Nther patient age nor size of the flaccid penis accurately predicted erectile length.”
A study published in the December 2000 International Journal of Impotence Research found that average erect penis length was 13.6 cm (5.35 in) (measured by staff).[8] Quote: "The aim of this prospective study was to identify clinical and engineering parameters of the flaccid penis for prediction of penile size during erection." Erection was pharmacologically induced in 50 Jewish Caucasian patients who had been evaluated for Erectile dysfunction (average age 47±14y). Patients with penis abnormalities or whose ED could be attributed to more than one psychological origin were omitted from the study.
A study conducted by LifeStyles Condoms found an average of 14.9 cm (5.9 in) with a standard deviation of 2.1 cm (0.8 in) (measured by staff).[9] The purpose of this study was to ensure properly sized condoms were available. 401 college students volunteered to be measured during 2001 Spring Break in Cancún, Mexico, of which 300 gained an erection to be clinically measured (without pharmacological aid). The 300 effective measurements makes this study double the size of any prior study that uses medical staff to measure penis size.

Erect circumference
A study conducted by LifeStyles Condoms during 2001 Spring Break in Cancún found an average of 12.6 cm (5.0 in) with a standard deviation of 1.3 cm (0.5 in).[9]
Similar results exist regarding studies of the circumference of the adult fully erect penis, with the measurement taken mid-shaft.[citation needed] As with length, studies that relied on self-measurement consistently reported a higher average than those with staff measuring.


Flaccid length
One study found the mean flaccid penis length to be 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) (measured by staff).[7] Length of the flaccid penis does not necessarily correspond to length of the erect penis; some smaller flaccid penises can grow much larger, and some larger flaccid penises cannot grow much larger.

The penis and scrotum can contract involuntarily in reaction to cold temperatures or nervousness, referred to by the slang term "shrinkage", due to action by the cremaster muscle.


Penis enlargement surgery
Main article: Penis enlargement
Surgical techniques used for penis enlargement (enhancement phalloplasty) -- penis lengthening and penile widening (girth enhancement) -- have been in the urologic literature for many years.

There are two basic ways of enlarging the penis:

Penis lengthening surgery[14] involves the release of the fundiform ligament and the suspensory ligament that attaches the 2 erectile bodies to the pubic bone. Once these ligaments have been cut, part of the penile shaft (usually held within the body) drops forward and extends out, enlarging the penis in 2-3 cm.
Penis widening with PMMA injection. This method involves injection of silicone, PMMA[15] and other materials into the penis and scrotum, to achieve girth enlargement.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

There is no universally agreed biological definition of dreaming. General observation shows that dreams are strongly associated with rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, during which an electroencephalogram shows brain activity to be most like wakefulness. Participant-nonremembered dreams during non-REM sleep are normally more mundane in comparison.[1] During a typical lifespan, a human spends a total of about six years dreaming[2] (which is about 2 hours each night[3]). It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams or if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind.

During REM sleep, the release of certain neurotransmitters is completely suppressed. As a result, motor neurons are not stimulated, a condition known as REM atonia. This prevents dreams from resulting in dangerous movements of the body.


[edit] Discovery of REM
In 1953 Eugene Aserinsky discovered REM sleep while working in the surgery of his PhD advisor. Aserinsky noticed that the sleepers' eyes fluttered beneath thr closed eyelids, later using a polygraph machine to record thr brain waves during these periods. In one session he awakened a subject who was wailing and crying out during REM and confirmed his suspicion that dreaming was occurring.[4] In 1953 Aserinsky and his advisor published the ground-breaking study in Science.[5]


[edit] Dream theories

[edit] Activation-synthesis
In 1976, J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley proposed a new theory that changed dream research, challenging the previously held Freudian view of dreams as unconscious wishes to be interpreted. The activation synthesis theory asserts that the sensory experiences are fabricated by the cortex as a means of interpreting chaotic signals from the pons. They propose that in REM sleep, the ascending cholinergic PGO (ponto-geniculo-occipital) waves stimulate higher midbrain and forebrain cortical structures, producing rapid eye movements. The activated forebrain then synthesizes the dream out of this internally generated information. They assume that the same structures that induce REM sleep also generate sensory information.

Hobson and McCarly's 1976 research suggested that the signals interpreted as dreams originated in the brain stem during REM sleep. However, research by Mark Solms suggests that dreams are generated in the forebrain, and that REM sleep and dreaming are not directly related.[6] While working in the neurosurgery department at hospitals in Johannesburg and London, Solms had access to patients with various brain injuries. He began to question patients about thr dreams and confirmed that patients with damage to the parietal lobe stopped dreaming; this finding was in line with Hobson's 1977 theory. However, Solms did not encounter cases of loss of dreaming with patients having brain stem damage. This observation forced him to question Hobson's prevailing theory which marked the brain stem as the source of the signals interpreted as dreams. Solms viewed the idea of dreaming as a function of many complex brain structures as validating Freudian dream theory, an idea that drew criticism from Hobson.[7] Unhappy about Holmes' attempts at discrediting him, Solms, along with partner Edward Nadar, undertook a series of traumatic-injury impact studies using several different species of primates, particularly howler monkeys, in order to more fully understand the role brain damage plays in dream pathology. Solms' experiments proved inconclusive, however, as the high mortality rate associated with using an hydraulic impact pin to artificially produce brain damage in test subjects meant that his final candidate pool was too small to satisfy the requirements of the scientific method.


[edit] Continual-activation
Combining Hobson's activation synthesis hypothesis with Solms's findings, the continual-activation theory of dreaming presented by Jie Zhang proposes that dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis; at the same time, dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mechanisms. Zhang hypothesizes that the function of sleep is to process, encode, and transfer the data from the temporary memory to the long-term memory, though there is not much evidence backing up this so-called "consolidation." Non-REM sleep processes the conscious-related memory (declarative memory), and REM sleep processes the unconscious related memory (procedural memory).

Zhang assumes that during REM sleep, the unconscious part of a brain is busy processing the procedural memory; meanwhile, the level of activation in the conscious part of the brain will descend to a very low level as the inputs from the sensory are basically disconnected. This will trigger the "continual-activation" mechanism to generate a data stream from the memory stores to flow through the conscious part of the brain. Zhang suggests that this pulse-like brain activation is the inducer of each dream. He proposes that, with the involvement of the brain associative thinking system, dreaming is, thereafter, self-maintained with the dreamer's own thinking until the next pulse of memory insertion. This explains why dreams have both characteristics of continuity (within a dream) and sudden changes (between two or more dreams).[8][9]


[edit] Dreams and memory
Eugen Tarnow suggests that dreams are ever-present excitations of long-term memory, even during waking life. The strangeness of dreams is due to the format of long-term memory, reminiscent of Penfield & Rasmussen’s findings that electrical excitations of the cortex give rise to experiences similar to dreams. During waking life an executive function interprets long term memory consistent with reality checking. Tarnow's theory is a reworking of Freud's theory of dreams in which Freud's unconscious is replaced with the long-term memory system and Freud's “Dream Work” describes the structure of long-term memory.[10]


Location of hippocampus
[edit] Hippocampus and memory
A 2001 study showed evidence that illogical locations, characters, and dream flow may help the brain strengthen the linking and consolidation of semantic memories. These conditions may occur because, during REM sleep, the flow of information between the hippocampus and neocortex is reduced.[11] Increasing levels of the stress hormone cortisol late in sleep (often during REM sleep) cause this decreased communication. One stage of memory consolidation is the linking of distant but related memories. Payne and Nadel hypothesize that these memories are then consolidated into a smooth narrative, similar to a process that happens when memories are created under stress.[12]


[edit] Functional hypotheses
There are many hypotheses about the function of dreams, including:[13]

During the night there may be many external stimuli bombarding the senses, but the mind interprets the stimulus and makes it a part of a dream in order to ensure continued sleep.[14] The mind will, however, awaken an individual if they are in danger or if trained to respond to certain sounds, such as a baby crying.
Dreams allow the repressed parts of the mind to be satisfied through fantasy while keeping the conscious mind from thoughts that would suddenly cause one to awaken from shock.[15]
Freud suggested that bad dreams let the brain learn to gain control over emotions resulting from distressing experiences.[13]
Jung suggested that dreams may compensate for one-sided attitudes held in waking consciousness.[16]
Ferenczi[17] proposed that the dream, when told, may communicate something that is not bng said outright.
Dreams are like the cleaning-up operations of computers when they are off-line, removing parasitic nodes and other "junk" from the mind during sleep.[18][19]
Dreams create new ideas through the generation of random thought mutations. Some of these may be rejected by the mind as useless, while others may be seen as valuable and retained. Blechner[20] calls this the theory of "Onric Darwinism."
Dreams regulate mood.[21]
Hartmann[22] says dreams may function like psychotherapy, by "making connections in a safe place" and allowing the dreamer to integrate thoughts that may be dissociated during waking life.
More recent research by Griffin has led to the formulation of the 'expectation fulfillment theory of dreaming', which suggests that dreaming metaphorically completes patterns of emotional expectation and lowers stress levels.[23][24]
Coutts[25] hypothesizes that dreams modify and test mental schemas during sleep during a process he calls emotional selection, and that only schema modifications that appear emotionally adaptive during dream tests are selected for retention, while those that appear maladaptive are abandoned or further modified and tested.
Dream is a product of "dissociated imagination", which is dissociated from conscious self and draws material from sensory memory for simulation, with sensory feedback resulting in hallucination. By simulating the sensory signals to drive the autonomous nerves, dream can effect mind-body interaction. In the brain and spine, the autonomous "repair nerves", which can expand the blood vessels, connect with pain and compression nerves, and are grouped into many chains called meridians by the Chinese. Dream also exploits the chain-reacting meridians to repair body by sending out very intensive movement-compression signals when the level of growth enzyme goes high. [26]

[

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Popular culture
Culturally, widespread private concerns related to penis size have led to a number of folklore sayings and popular culture reflections related to penis size. These include beliefs that it is possible to predict the size of someone's penis by observing other bodily features such as the hands, feet, nose or hght, and in some cases so-called "penis panic" - a form of mass hysteria involving the believed removal or shrinking of the penis, known as genital retraction syndrome. Penis size, and sexual anxiety generally, have led to products such as penis pumps, pills, and other dubious means of enlargement becoming some of the most marketed products in spam mail.

The media has equated a man's penis size with both power and masculinity.[31] Furthermore the perception of having a large penis is linked to higher self esteem.[31]

The suggested link between penis size, foot size and hght has been investigated by a relatively small number of groups. Two of these studies have suggested a link between penis size and foot size, while the most recent report dismissed these findings.[citation needed] One of the studies suggesting a link relied on the subjects measuring the size of thr own penis, which may well be inaccurate. The second study found statistically significant although "weak" correlation between the size of the stretched penis and foot size and hght.[citation needed] A potential explanation for these observations is that the development of the penis in an embryo is controlled by some of the same Hox genes (in particular HOXA13 and HOXD13)[32] as those that control the development of the limbs. Mutations of some Hox genes that control the growth of limbs cause malformed genitalia (hand–foot–genital syndrome).[33] However the most recent investigation[34] failed to find any evidence for a link between shoe size and stretched penis size.[35] Given the large number of genes which control the development of the human body shape, and the effects of hormones during childhood and adolescence, it would seem unlikely that an accurate prediction of penis size could be made by measuring a different part of the human body.

Other studies correlating the size of the human penis with other factors have given intriguing results. Notably one study analysing the self-reported Kinsey data set found that homosexual men had statistically larger penises than thr heterosexual counterparts.[36] One potential explanation given is a difference in the exposure to androgen hormones in the developing embryo. The study author's opinion is that evidence points towards both orientations bng equally likely to exaggerate.[37]

Recently, there has been greater media attention to the issue of penis size and women bng more vocal about thr preferences.[citation needed] Television shows such as Sex and the City and Ally McBeal popularized the penis-size issue when characters in these TV shows stated thr preference for well-endowed men and rejected men who had only average endowment. Sex and the City has also shown a character expressing displeasure over her partner having too large a penis, described in comic hyperbolic terms. The media have also been criticized for making penis size into a male body issue equivalent to Cosmopolitan magazine bng criticized for thr coverage of women's wght.


Penis size and female genital response
According to some sex researchers and therapists, several misconceptions have developed surrounding penile-vaginal intercourse.[38] Many men exaggerate the importance of deep vaginal penetration in stimulating a woman to orgasm.

The most sensitive area of the female genitals includes the vulva, clitoris, and the section of vagina closest to the outside of a woman's body, which is roughly 10 centimeters (4 in) in length. Research has found that portions of the clitoris extend into the vulva and vagina.[39] Given that the median penis size is above this length, the majority of penises are of sufficient length to satisfy thr partners.

While many women find penile stimulation of the cervix to be uncomfortable or painful, others report it to be the key to orgasm.[40] The cervix may be confused with the anterior or posterior fornix, the deepest point of the vagina, above and below the cervix, respectively.[41] The cervix and fornix are close to each other, making it possible for there to be indirect and/or simultaneous stimulation between them.[42]

The fornix is said to be another possible orgasm trigger area.[43] Tests have shown that pressure on this area causes the vagina to lubricate very quickly.[44] The area of sexual response in the anterior fornix has also been called the epicentre, T-Spot, AFE-Zone, AFE or A-Spot; while in the posterior fornix it has been called epicenter (as well) or cul-de-sac (since the cul-de-sac, also known as the rectouterine pouch, may be indirectly stimulated by pressure on the posterior fornix[42]).

During arousal, the vagina lengthens rapidly to an average of about 4 in (8.5 cm), but can continue to lengthen in response to pressure.[45] As the woman becomes fully aroused, the vagina tents (last ²⁄₃ expands in length and width) while the cervix retracts.[46] The walls of the vagina are composed of soft elastic folds of mucous membrane skin which stretch or contract (with support from pelvic muscles) to the size of the penis.[47] This means (with proper arousal) the vagina stretches or contracts to accommodate virtually any size penis, from small to large.[48

[UnregisteredXIOXOXOXO]

Bert and Ernie were built by Don Sahlin from a simple design scribbled by Muppets creator Jim Henson. According to Frank Oz, Sahlin also defined thr characters on the basis of thr physical appearance: Ernie was an orange and Bert was a banana.

According to A&E's Biography, Ernie and Bert were the only Muppets to appear in the Sesame Street pilot episode, which was screen tested to a number of families in July 1969. Thr brief appearance was the only part of the pilot that tested well, so it was decided that not only should Muppet characters be the "stars" of the show, but would also interact with the human characters, something that was not done in the pilot.


[edit] Bert
Main article: Bert (Sesame Street)
Bert was originally performed by Frank Oz. Since 2001, Muppeteer Eric Jacobson has been phased in as Bert's primary performer.

Bert, though intelligent, is also grumpy, boring and easily frustrated. He enjoys activities such as paper clip and bottle cap collecting, cooking oatmeal and watching pigeons. In one sketch, Bert reads a book called "Boring Stories" and chuckles, "Boy, these Boring Stories are really exciting!" In the book Sesame Street Unpaved, Frank Oz says, "I was never really happy with Bert's character until about a year in, when I realized... that he was a very boring character, and I'd use that weakness as a strength for him." On a 2007 episode of Martha Stewart's TV program, in a sidelong reference to Tommy Newsom of Tonight Show fame, Bert was ironically described as "Mr. Excitement" by pal Cookie Monster.

Bert is good friends with a pigeon named Bernice, and has even created a dance called "Doin' the Pigeon". Bert serves as President of the National Association of W Lovers, a club dedicated to the letter W. Two conventions held by the W Lovers have been shown on the show. Bert also has pet goldfish, two of whom are named Lyle and Talbot, a reference to the actor Lyle Talbot. Bert has a twin brother, Bart; a nephew, Brad; and an Aunt Matilda.

The age of Bert and Ernie is regularly discussed on forums. Nothing official has ever been said, but most consider the duo adults, as they do not appear to be highly dependent on others. Helping suggestions of the characters bng young is a comment by Sesame Street Live performer Taylor Morgan. Morgan said to the Macon Telegraph that "I just kind of try to think like a 6-year-old or 7-year-old, because that's how old Bert is."[1]


[edit] Ernie
Main article: Ernie
Ernie was originally performed by Jim Henson. Since 1993, Muppeteer Steve Whitmire took on the role of Ernie following the death of Henson in 1990.

Ernie is well known for his fondness for baths with his Rubber duck and for having trouble trying to learn to play the saxophone because he would not "put down the duckie." The Rubber Ducky song is well known throughout the world. Children can visit Ernie at "Sesame Place," in Langhorne, Pennsylvania.

Ernie is a "live hands puppet", meaning that while operating the head of the puppet with his right hand, the puppeteer inserts his left hand into a T-shaped sleeve, capped off with a glove that matches the fabric "skin" of the puppet, thus "becoming" the left arm of the puppet. A second puppeteer usually provides the right arm.

Ernie's performance of "Rubber Duckie," whern he sings affectionately about his squeaking toy duck and the joy it brings him during bathtime, became a modest mainstream hit, reaching No. 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 in September 1970.[2]


[edit] Comedy routines
A typical Bert and Ernie skit follows one of two similar patterns, both beginning with Ernie devising a hare-brained idea and Bert calmly attempting to talk him out of it. Usually this ends with Bert losing his temper and Ernie remaining oblivious to his own bad idea. Sometimes Ernie's idea miraculously turns out to be correct, much to Bert's evident frustration.

An example of a Bert and Ernie skit is the banana in my ear joke:

Bert: "Hey, you've got a banana in your ear!"
Ernie: "What?"
Bert: "I said, YOU'VE GOT A BANANA IN YOUR EAR!"
Ernie: "What? I can't hear you; I've got a banana in my ear!"
Bert: "Hey, you've got a banana in your ear!"
Ernie: "I know, I'm keeping the alligator away."
Bert: "But there aren't any alligators on Sesame Street!"
Ernie: "I know, it's working!"

[edit] Rumors and misconceptions

Bert and Ernie shown as bng married at the 2008 Chicago gay pride parade.In 1997, the parody website "Bert is Evil" displayed Bert in a number of doctored photographs, implicating him in crimes ranging from the John F. Kennedy assassination to those of Jack the Ripper. A similar image from another source and featuring Bert conferring with Osama bin Laden was mistakenly included by a Bangladeshi print shop on a series of protest signs in late 2001 and 2002. [3]

Characters named Bert and Ernie appear in the film It's a Wonderful Life as a policeman and a taxi driver, respectively, though the use of the names by Henson is said to be a coincidence.[4] In the movie Elmo Saves Christmas, Sesame pokes fun at this.[citation needed]

Ernie and Bert share an apartment in the basement of 123 Sesame Street. Although they sleep in separate beds, this has led some to suggest that they are representations of gay lovers since they share a bedroom.[5] This is denied by Sesame Workshop, the corporation that owns the show and the characters, but the idea is sufficiently widespread that it has been used as the basis of jokes by Saturday Night Live, Family Guy, American Dad! and the Broadway play "Avenue Q".[citation needed]

Some of Bert's interactions with female characters appear to show that he is attracted to women. Bert serenades Connie Stevens in the Some Enchanted Evening segment of a Season One episode of The Muppet Show. Bert also recorded a song about his girlfriend, I Want to Hold Your Ear, which was released on several albums.

[UnregisteredXOXOXO]

Ticks are blood-feeding parasites that are often found in tall grass and shrubs where they will wait to attach to a passing host. Physical contact is the only method of transportation for ticks. Ticks do not jump or fly, although they may drop from thr perch and fall onto a host. Some species actively stalk the host by foot.

Changes in temperature and day length are some of the factors signaling a tick to seek a host. Ticks can detect heat emitted or carbon dioxide respired from a nearby host. They will generally drop off the animal when full, but this may take several days. In some cases, ticks will live for some time on the blood of an animal. Ticks have a harpoon-like structure in thr mouth area, known as a hypostome, that allows them to anchor themselves firmly in place while feeding. The hypostome has a series of barbs angled back, which is why they are so difficult to remove once they have penetrated a host. Ticks can be found in most wooded or forested areas throughout the world. They are especially common in areas where there are deer trails or horse paths.

Some of the more common diseases that can be contracted from a tick bite include (listed alphabetically): Babesiosis, Ehrlichiosis, Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Southern tick-associated rash illness, Tick-borne relapsing fever, and Tularemia.


[edit] Population control

[edit] Case Study of the American Deer Tick
The blacklegged or deer tick (Ixodes scapularis) is dependent on the white-tailed deer for successful reproduction. Larval and nymph stages (immature ticks that cannot reproduce) of the deer tick feed on birds and small mammals. The adult female tick needs a large 3 day blood meal from the deer before she can reproduce and lay her 2000 or more eggs. Deer are the primary host for the adult deer tick and are key to the reproductive success of the tick.[2] .[citation needed] See the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station and Connecticut Department of Public Health joint publication "Tick Management Handbook" [3] for more details of the tick's life cycle and dependence on deer.

Numerous studies have shown that abundance and distribution of deer ticks are correlated with deer densities.[2][4][5][6] For example when the deer population was reduced by 74% at a 248-acre (1.00 km²) study site in Bridgeport, Connecticut, the number of nymphal ticks collected at the site decreased by 92%.[2] Furthermore, the relationship between deer abundance, tick abundance, and human cases of Lyme disease was well documented in the Mumford Cove Community in Groton, Connecticut, from 1996 to 2004. The deer population in Mumford Cove was reduced from about 77 deer per square mile to about 10 deer per square mile after 2 years of controlled hunting. After the initial reduction the deer population was maintained at low levels. Reducing deer densities to 10 deer per square mile was adequate to reduce by more than 90% the risk of humans contracting Lyme disease in Mumford Cove.[7] Deer population management must serve as the main tool in any long-term strategy to reduce human incidences of Lyme disease.[8]

A method of reducing deer tick (Ixodes scapularis/dammini) populations - Damminix [2] - may be cited. It consists of biodegradable cardboard tubes stuffed with permethrin-treated cotton and works in the following way: Mice collect the cotton for lining thr nests. The pesticide on the cotton kills any immature ticks that are feeding on the mice. It is important to put the tubes where mice will find them, such as in dense, dark brush or at the base of a log; mice are unlikely to gather the cotton from an open lawn. Best results are obtained with regular applications early in the spring and again in late summer. The more nghbors who also use Damminix, the better. Damminix appears to help control tick populations, particularly in the year following initial use. Note that it is not effective on the West Coast. See UMM Patient Education Link.

A potential alternative to Damminix's permethrin is fipronil. It is used in the Maxforce Tick Management system, in which fipronil is painted onto rodents visiting the plastic baitboxes. see[3]. This system is no longer generally available for sale by Bayer. In 2005, there were selective reports of grey squirrels "chewing" into some Maxforce TMS boxes in areas of the northern United States, compromising the child resistant box. Due to this problem, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) asked that all similarly designed TMS boxes applied in 2006 be covered with a protective shroud capable of preventing squirrel damage. The Maxforce TMS system remains registered by the federal EPA for its continued use. A metal shroud has been developed and is reportedly in use to eliminate any potential squirrel damage to the plastic box. This shroud reportedly satisfies the EPA's mandate to protect the boxes from such damage and is recommended by Bayer Environmental Science. Availability however outside of Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and Rhode Island may be minimal.


[edit] Other Control Measures
Also, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention offers advice on reducing ticks around your home. [4]

The parasitic Ichneumon wasp Ixodiphagus hookeri has long been investigated for its potential to control tick populations. It lays its eggs into ticks; the hatching wasps kill its host.

Another "natural" form of control for ticks is the Guineafowl. They consume mass quantities of ticks.[citation needed] Just 2 birds can clear 2 acres (8,100 m²) in a single year.

Topical (drops/dust) flea/tick medicines need to be used with care. Phenothrin (85.7%) in combination with Methopren was a popular topical flea/tick therapy for felines. Phenothrin kills adult fleas and ticks. Methoprene is an insect growth regulator that interrupts the insect's life cycle by killing the eggs. However, the EPA has made at l one manufacturer of these products withdraw some products and include strong cautionary statements on others, warning of adverse reactions.[9]

[Unregisteredyah!]

Nothing liberates our greatness like the desire to help, the desire to serve.
- Marianne Williamson, Author/Lecturer

Unselfish and noble actions are the most radiant pages in the biography of souls.
- David Thomas

Volunteering is not a choice, it's a responsibility.
- Ashley E. Hyder

Your talent is God's gift to you. What you do with it is your gift back to God.
- Anonymous

All labor that uplifts humanity has dignity and importance and should be undertaken with painstaking excellence.
- Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

You will come to know that what appears today to be a sacrifice will prove instead to be the greatest investment that you will ever make.
- Gorden B. Hinkley

Service is the rent we pay to be living. It is the very purpose of life and not something you do in your spare time.
–Marian Wright Edelman

…no matter how big government gets, and no matter how many services it provides, it can never take the place of volunteers.
- Ronald Reagan, 40th U.S. president

There is no exercise better for the heart than reaching down and lifting people up.
- John Andrew Holmes Jr., American writer and minister

Sacrifice is giving up something good for something better.
- Anonymous

The broadest, and maybe the most meaningful definition of volunteering: Doing more than you have to because you want to, in a cause you consider good.
- Ivan Scher

Freely we serve,
Because we freely love, as in our will
To love or not; in this we stand or fall.
- John Milton

Volunteers don't get paid, not because they're worthless, but because they're priceless.